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The paper explores the scope of transportation infrastructure appraisal approaches for capturing in-process (during design/development and construction) socio-economic impacts. In-process socio-economic impacts are explored through the case of a major road infrastructure improvement programme in South Wales, United Kingdom. The study posits that monitoring in-process benefits can provide a more holistic understanding of impacts to better inform appraisal approaches, addressing concerns over existing appraisal transparency and accountability. Advancing monitoring and appraisal in this way means that more unexpected socio-economic outcomes for regional economies can be understood. These impacts are illustrated through the labour market, skills and wider supply side legacy benefits resulting from direct project activity. The paper reveals the potential outcomes of capturing these in-process socio-economic benefits when supporting local economies in lagging regions. • Infrastructure construction (in-process) development benefits are often overlooked. • In-process outcomes contribute to longer-term regional development gains. • Monitoring allows labour market gains and supply side legacies to be advanced. • In process socio-economic outcomes are valuable for lagging regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since 2015, the United Kingdom (UK) has increased its investment in transportation infrastructure to compensate for years of underinvestment in comparison with peer countries. It is of critical importance to evaluate the effect of these recent investments, as well as historical ones, on economic development, both theoretically and empirically, to provide guidance on future infrastructure investment. However, few research looks into such policy adjustment on economic growth in the UK. To fill this gap, this paper investigates the relationship between transport infrastructure development and economic growth in the UK from different time spans. Principal component analysis (PCA) is used to construct a comprehensive measure of transport infrastructure development. This paper then applies Vector Error Correction Model (VECM) to investigate both long-run and short-run relationships between transport infrastructure development and economic growth from 1970 to 2017 in the UK. Empirical results suggest that transportation infrastructure has a long-run promotive effect on economic development. However, in the short run, this effect turns out to be significantly negative. The analysis of this paper indicates differentiated roles that the UK's transport infrastructure played in economic growth, which should be considered in future policy design of achieving economic sustainability in the UK. • This paper investigates the relationship between transport infrastructure development and economic growth in the UK. • Transportation infrastructure has a long-run promotive effect on economic development. • In the short run, transportation infrastructure fails to promote economic development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) present enormous uncertainties and challenges for future urban transport and mobility. While urban and transportation planning have significant roles to play in shaping these futures, a critical challenge is identifying and reconciling divergent values and competing visions in relation to this potentially disruptive transport technology and the associated mobility services. In this paper, we demonstrate the use of a participatory multi-criteria visioning and appraisal framework and methodology to enable stakeholders to envision, identify and interrogate essential tensions between imagined AV futures and long-term transport and mobility imperatives. Based on workshops with stakeholders at the forefront of policy and practice, and academia in Greater Manchester (UK) and Melbourne (Australia), we reveal several insights. Regarding the prospects of AVs, our participants are neither 'opponents' nor 'evangelists', but instead, manifest the contrasting attitudes and perspectives of excitement, optimism, ambivalence, scepticism and uncertainty all at the same time. In the visions outlined and appraised, our stakeholders identify AVs prospects in various use cases, such as public transport, personal and shared-use and urban freight and delivery applications, while at the same time recognising the inherent contradictions between automated driving futures outlined and imperatives such as reversing auto-mobility and creating safe and inclusive urban environments. Finally, the study brings to the fore the significant role of governance in mediating the politics and resolving contestations in critical areas including data management and privacy, cybersecurity and implementing viable business models and ownership arrangements. • Develop and apply participatory multi-criteria framework to envision and appraise automated driving futures. • Identify and interrogate essential tensions between imagined AV futures and long-term transport and mobility imperatives. • Identify AVs prospects in various use cases, such as public transport, personal and shared-use. • Inherent contradictions between automated driving, reversing auto-mobility and creating safe urban environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses two differing approaches to the improvement of local bus services, using the analytical lens of formal and informal institutions. Both formal and informal institutions govern the behaviour of authorities and operators, but they do it in different ways and they have advantages and disadvantages. In so doing we seek to understand both how the informal institutional approach (e.g. voluntary partnership working) can be used effectively, but also to assess its limits; and to understand why a formal institutional approach (e.g. franchising), in spite of its strong underlying basis in law, may nonetheless not always function. Through doing so, this paper contributes to the current understanding of how to handle the unintended consequences of a deregulated market through the different (formal and informal) ways available. • Compares two differing approaches to the improvement of local bus services. • Contrasts informal (voluntary partnership) with formal (franchsing) models. • Explores how to handle the unintended consequences of a deregulated market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Covid-19 has had a major impact on public transport systems across the world. Public financial support has been needed to maintain services in the face of drastically reduced ridership and adjustment to the need for social distancing. This paper explores the challenge this poses to current methods of delivery of public transport services and argues that a simple return to the status quo is unlikely as public transport adjusts to a new normal of more home working and fear of crowded spaces. In turn this impacts most on the transport disadvantaged. The paper argues that this may spell the end of the prevailing model of a deregulated competitive public transport that has prevailed in the United Kingdom and require a major rethinking of the way to provide an efficient and effective transport system. Such a rethink will depend on understanding the interplay of private and social norms and building public trust. • Transport impacts of Covid-19. • Public transport. • Government funding. • Transport planning. • United Kingdom. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous work by the authors has addressed the issue of local bus policy implementation in Britain outside London by studies of local transport documents, survey and interviews of local transport officers working in local authorities. The findings from these studies highlight that some of the key elements to successful implementation could be understood in more depth by taking a case study approach. This paper analyses four case studies of the implementation of specific bus policy measures in four different cities in Great Britain: the Quality Contract Scheme (QCS) in Tyne and Wear, the Fastlink Scheme in Glasgow, a Bus Priority Scheme in Solihull and a Smart Ticketing Scheme in Dundee. The findings in this paper show that policy champions, collaboration and interaction help to build a relationship between the parties involved, ensure limited changes due to bureaucratic power and changes to the policy, and help to overcome opposition, conflict and ambiguities. It is important that those involved in the policy process are provided with relevant training, supervision and support to help overcome the staffing difficulties and to deal with barriers external to the implementing organisation such as economic, social and political conditions. • Greatest influences on implementation are identified. • Greatest challenges faced by local authorities are identified. • Those involved in policy process require relevant training, supervision and support. • Authorities must be certain from the planning stage that resources are available. • Clear strategies and tactics improve policy development and collaboration, stakeholder engagement and decision making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper studies the experience of Europe's three most liberalised railways - Sweden, Germany and Britain - in opening-up rail passenger services to competition by means of competitive tendering, and seeks to draw lessons for countries that are just starting the process, such as France. It also comments on experience of competition in the market in these and other countries (this form of competition has been taken furthest in other countries - notably Italy and the Czech Republic, as well as on a single route in Austria). The paper fills an important gap in the literature - that has so far focused on econometric modelling of the impact of rail reforms - by considering how competition can best be introduced in practice. This investigation is important and timely given the requirements of EU legislation (4th Railway Package) which will require competition to be introduced into passenger rail services (by 2020 for commercial services, and 2023 for public transport contracts) across the whole of the EU. It finds evidence that competitive tendering has helped increase demand for and reduce subsidies to the rail passenger sector, but that there are many decisions that have to be taken as to how it is to be implemented. Short gross cost contracts may work well for regional services where the tendering authority takes the lead in planning and marketing such services. If services where ticket revenue recovers a larger share of costs – "more commercial services" – are to be tendered, long net cost contracts may make more sense. An alternative is to leave them operated by the incumbent but with open access for competitors to enter the market. Two particular issues face countries starting on the liberalisation process. Firstly, if existing rolling stock is owned by the incumbent rather than the franchising authority or an independent company; that remains a major barrier to entry. The second is the position of existing staff. If new operators are required to take them on at existing wages and conditions; that is a barrier to improved efficiency, but for new operators to recruit their own staff may also be problematic, particularly where the pace of change is fast. • In all three liberalised countries (GB, Sweden and Germany) there has been rapid growth in demand for regional services. • Subsidies per train-km and passenger-km have also fallen in all three countries, though in GB unit costs rose post-reforms. • Gross-cost contracts useful where regional body controls marketing/services; otherwise net-cost contracts may be preferred. • Where large-scale competition introduced for first time, treatment of rolling stock and existing staff biggest issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Much research surrounds the move from publicly owned and operated bus markets to publicly controlled and privately operated markets, or in the case of Great Britain, a fully deregulated market. Little research however exists concerning the counter move and the issues that this may raise. Such a step would be consistent with Gwilliam's regulatory cycle, which suggests that a combination of self seeking behaviour of suppliers and unrealistic aspirations of politicians leads to instability in the regulatory arrangements for the provision of bus services. Consequently, the associated structural and institutional arrangements go through a cycle of private/public ownership and competitive/regulated markets. The paper discusses some of the practicalities at the regional level of introducing the measures provided by the Bus Services Act 2017 in England and the Transport Act 2019 in Scotland, both of which offer the option of a partial or full economic reregulation of bus services. Theories of radical policy change are examined and applied in the context of the issue through interviews with key informants in regional authorities in Scotland and England. The overriding conclusion from this analysis is that whilst deregulating the market does not actually break Gwilliam's regulatory cycle, it makes it very difficult to 're-connect', and thus a further long term consequence of bus deregulation in Britain in the mid 1980s is that future policy options may have been severely restricted in the very long term. • Identifying the key factors required to bring about radical transport policy change. • Bus de-regulation represented a clear break in the regulatory cycle and as such has compromised longer term policy actions. • The importance of real transport governance and the financial ability to carry through policy actions. • A major divergence between actions policy makers think is required, and the realities to which those actions are targeted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Effective planning and investment for transport infrastructure systems is seen as key for economic development in both advanced and developing economies. However, planning for such strategic transport investments is fraught with difficulties, due to their high costs and public profile, long asset life, and uncertainty over future transport demand patterns and technologies. Given that only a finite quantity of funding is available for transport investment, it is important that this funding is spent in the right places and on the right schemes in order to ensure that the best return is obtained from limited public resources. There is therefore a need for a model which is capable of assessing network demand and performance in a wide range of possible futures, in order that robust decisions can be taken with regard to which schemes are given the go ahead. This paper discusses a range of issues associated with the development of a strategic national transport model for Great Britain as part of a wider interdependent infrastructure systems modelling framework (NISMOD). It considers the compromises which have to be made in order to develop a model which can examine a wide range of potential futures in a reasonable timescale, outlines how such futures can be captured in the model, and finally assesses the continued role of planners and policy-makers in determining both how the model is applied and how the future of transport systems might play out in reality. While the paper is based on a case study example from Great Britain, most of the general issues discussed are of relevance to transport and infrastructure policy making in almost any national or international context. Highlights • Strategic national transport model developed and applied. • Compromises inherent in modelling do not prevent useful outputs being produced. • Relatively simple models produce outputs comparable with complex alternatives. • Models cannot independently determine pathways to a better transport future. • Models need to be underpinned by clear and consistent strategic thinking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There has been a succession of policy documents related to active travel published by the British government since the implementation of a National Cycle Network (NCN) in 1995. However, as the latest National Travel Survey (NTS) reveals, the number of journeys made by bike in the UK has remained steadfastly around only 2% (Department for Transport [DfT], 2018a). By using documentary analysis of the available official policy documents and statements, the aim of this paper is to make sense of the policies that have been published concerning active travel (AT) in England. This is done from a figurational sociological perspective. Three key themes emerge from the analysis: (1) the rhetorical, advisory level of the vast majority of the policies; (2) the reliance on a wide network of local authorities to implement AT policy; and (3) the focus placed on individuals to change their behaviour. Furthermore, the analysis reveals that despite a large number of policy publications from a range of government departments claiming to promote AT, little has actually changed in this time period in terms of a national agenda. Despite the successive policies, it seems there is little appetite on behalf of recent governments to make widespread infrastructural changes, where instead the focus has largely been on persuading the individual to seek more active modes of travel, increasingly for their own, individual 'health' gains. Highlights •The paper is based on documentary analysis of available official policy documents from UK government on active travel since 1996 • The findings reveal the largely rhetorical, advisory level of the vast majority of the policies, which contributes to a lack of overall success in promoting active travel • The lack of success is compounded further by a reliance on a wide network of local authorities to implement active travel policy, when most local authorities appear more concerned with transport issues related to motorised vehicles • The findings reveal that active travel policy has becoming increasingly focussed on health gains that might be made from increasing the number of trips made by bicycle • The overwhelming focus of the policy documents analysed, however, is on encouraging individuals to change their behaviour, a process regarded as 'healthism', and one most sociologists of health suggest is likely to fail as a result • We conclude by suggesting that if the government is serious about wanting to see a 'step change' in the way in which people travel, particularly over shorter distances, then there is a need to have a more forceful approach to implementing policy within local authorities at the same time as making more substantial infrastructure changes to encourage cycling [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The notion of ‘fuel poverty’, referring to affordable warmth, underpins established research and policy agendas in the UK and has been extremely influential worldwide. In this context, British researchers, official policymaking bodies and NGOs have put forward the notion of ‘transport poverty’, building on an implicit analogy between (recognised) fuel poverty and (neglected) transport affordability issues. However, the conceptual similarities and differences between ’fuel’ and ’transport’ poverty remain largely unaddressed in the UK. This paper systematically compares and contrasts the two concepts, examining critically the assumption of a simple equivalence between them. We illustrate similarities and differences under four headings: (i) negative consequences of lack of warmth and lack of access; (ii) drivers of fuel and transport poverty; (iii) definition and measurement; (iv) policy interventions. Our review suggests that there are important conceptual and practical differences between transport and domestic energy consumption, with crucial consequences for how affordability problems amongst households are to be conceptualised and addressed. In a context where transport and energy exhibit two parallel policy worlds, the analysis in the paper and these conclusions reinforce how and why these differences matter. As we embark on an ever closer union between our domestic energy and transport energy systems the importance of these contradictions will become increasingly evident and problematic. This work contributes to the long-term debate about how best to manage these issues in a radical energy transition that properly pays attention to issues of equity and affordability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The notion of ‘fuel poverty’, referring to affordable warmth, underpins established research and policy agendas in the UK and has been extremely influential worldwide. In this context, British researchers, official policymaking bodies and NGOs have put forward the notion of ‘transport poverty’, building on an implicit analogy between (recognised) fuel poverty and (neglected) transport affordability issues. However, the conceptual similarities and differences between 'fuel' and 'transport' poverty remain largely unaddressed in the UK. This paper systematically compares and contrasts the two concepts, examining critically the assumption of a simple equivalence between them. We illustrate similarities and differences under four headings: (i) negative consequences of lack of warmth and lack of access; (ii) drivers of fuel and transport poverty; (iii) definition and measurement; (iv) policy interventions. Our review suggests that there are important conceptual and practical differences between transport and domestic energy consumption, with crucial consequences for how affordability problems amongst households are to be conceptualised and addressed. In a context where transport and energy exhibit two parallel policy worlds, the analysis in the paper and these conclusions reinforce how and why these differences matter. As we embark on an ever closer union between our domestic energy and transport energy systems the importance of these contradictions will become increasingly evident and problematic. This work contributes to the long-term debate about how best to manage these issues in a radical energy transition that properly pays attention to issues of equity and affordability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, concerns over effective consumer representation of public transport users have increased considerably, as public transport has undergone substantial regulatory reforms. The ultimate goal of deregulation is to protect and benefit the public at large. Hence, this paper explores how this goal is being pursued by examining the roles of statutory, independent passenger watchdogs and their relationships with authorities and operators in regulated and deregulated bus regimes. Drawing on a case study of London TravelWatch and Transport Focus in Great Britain, our findings show that statutory passenger watchdogs are effective in representing passenger interests due to four factors in particular: the organizational setting, research-based evidence, accommodating relationships, and public outreach. The paper also documents the differences in how these passenger watchdogs build their relationships with key stakeholders and work with them within the strategic-tactical-operational framework. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study estimates total, inland, water and air transport net forward, backward and internal carbon linkages of EU's top seven emitters from 1995 to 2011. Moreover, it also reports direct emissions and intensities. Direct emissions of the seven for all four sectors mostly increased with varying proportions, while direct intensities followed a downward trend. Total, inland, water and air net backward emissions were reasonably stable excluding Germany who's total and inland net backward emissions sharply declined during 2000 while water and air emissions increased sharply. Although some nations witnessed a decrease, overall total, inland and air transport net forward emissions increased. While water transport net forward emissions had huge fluxes in the middle, stabilised towards the end. Total, inland, and air transport internal emissions for most of the nations increased over time. However, water transport internal emissions except for the UK were reasonably stable. 'Electricity, Gas and Water Supply' was the top source of German; Polish; Italian; British and Dutch net backward emissions. France and Spain's highest carbon imports were from 'Coke, Refined Petroleum and Nuclear Fuel.' Highest destinations of net forward emissions keep changing over time. The paper also discusses policy implications. Image 1 • Extended modified hypothetical extraction model to time series and cross-regional analysis. • Estimated total, inland, water and air transport carbon linkages of EU's top seven emitters from 1995 to 2011. • Also reported direct emissions and intensities. • On average forward and internal linkages increased while backward linkages marginally decreased. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Thirty years ago, Adams (1981) depicted a future UK where everyone was a millionaire lorry driver, simply by extrapolating from contemporary official transport growth assumptions. These assumptions underpinned the ‘predict and provide’ approach which then characterised transport planning. Twenty years later, the New Deal for Transport White Paper (1998) abandoned ‘predict and provide’ as unsustainable. This paper argues that the same growth assumptions that Adams took to their logical (absurd) conclusion have re-emerged to define both transport and the drivers of transport demand. While non-aviation transport is supposed to be carbon-neutral by 2050, the implied reductions in emissions rely on an absolute decoupling of transport demand and its drivers for which there is no evidence in current planning. Targets rely on optimistic, narrowly framed technology forecasts and behaviour change assumptions which appear highly unlikely in the present socio-political climate. Moreover, such is the cost of mitigating these tensions between economic growth and other concerns, it is argued that the targeted outcomes of current policy are as undesirable as they are unlikely. The paper concludes by calling for a transport policy which considers mobility in an integrated, holistic fashion, rather than merely as a dimension of economic growth. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Motorway merging has been regarded as a major source of conflicts and congestion, but has long been recognised as an area in which modelling has been relatively weak. The current traffic models represent the traffic operations at a merge are based on gap-acceptance approach, with the merging traffic giving-way to traffic on the mainline carriageway and imposing little or no delay to the mainline traffic. The results tend to overestimate delays to the merging traffic, and underestimate delays and interruptions to the mainline traffic. This paper investigates the current practice in modelling motorway merge in the UK and highlights some major conceptual and methodological differences to those in the US and Germany. Studies based on empirical observations and a dynamic, behaviour-based microsimulation modelling were carried out to improve understanding of the factors involved in the performance at merge. The results demonstrate the sensitivity of model predictions – and perhaps policy decisions – to the behavioural assumptions made in traffic models. The paper provides simple, practical recommendations to improve the current practice on modelling merge by the consideration of peak flow profile in the estimation of merge capacity, realistic local and variable pcu values for heavy vehicles, and a more confined merge influence area than currently advised in the UK guidelines. It calls for further empirical and behavioural-based microsimulation analysis and for the explicit consideration of the variability of traffic flows and dynamic congestion effects on merge, to improve the model predictions and provide better investment decisions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper analyses UK cycling policy in relation to the shift towards a hollowed-out neoliberal state. In the UK, cycling became embedded in public policy only after policy-making had been variously outsourced to private, quasi-private, and voluntary organisations. The paper argues that this broader context has contributed to the ongoing failure to treat cycling as a strategically important mode meriting substantial national transport funding. Secondly, the paper makes links between a growing policy focus on ‘active’ and ‘responsible’ citizenship, and the dispersal of cycling policy away from transport into other areas including public health and the environment. It is argued that while there are benefits to this construct, it has again helped to maintain cycling as perceived as being peripheral to the main business of ‘transport’. Cycling policy has been doubly devolved, away from the state, and away from transport. The implications of this for policy and advocacy are discussed and future directions for both are finally outlined. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract What happens to travel behaviour when the right to park at a destination is removed? This question, fundamental to travel demand management and land-use planning, has only been partially addressed in the literature so far. The impacts on travel to the destination concerned have been studied, but not the impacts on wider travel behaviour. This paper reports on a natural experiment related to destination parking, where a university removed the right of most undergraduates living off-campus to park on its main suburban campus. A survey was conducted to compare the travel behaviours of two groups of undergraduate students: the first group started before and the second group started after the introduction of the parking restriction (n = 858). The survey captured licence-holding, car availability during the term and vacation periods, and the mode of transport used to travel to campus and for the last trip to another location. The parking restriction was associated with a fall in the modal share of driving to campus of nine percentage points. Car availability during term-time fell by 14 percentage points and licence-holding fell by nine percentage points. The policy change was associated with greater changes amongst females than males. Overall, the results suggest that removing the right of young adults to park at a frequent destination delayed their acquisition of driving licences and cars. These findings may explain part of the fall in licence-holding observed amongst young adults in Great Britain in recent decades. Highlights • The article evaluates a natural experiment where the right to park was removed from undergraduates travelling to a campus. • The intervention reduced travel by car to the campus. • The intervention reduced car ownership, license-holding and travel for other purposes. • These findings suggest destination parking controls may have a wider impact on travel behaviour than previously believed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The UK National Cycle Network (NCN) developed by the transport organisation, Sustrans, is a significant policy intervention aimed at encouraging cycling. Around half of the population is purported to live within one mile of the 20,000km Network. Traffic-free paths (separated from the public highway away from motor traffic) form about one third of the Network but account for around 80% of trips. The importance of NCN urban traffic-free paths in encouraging people to cycle is often assumed but despite large aggregate datasets characterising users, there is no research on the effects on the local communities which they serve. This paper presents research which aimed to identify the contribution of a typical section of NCN urban traffic-free path in encouraging cycling for everyday travel amongst a community living adjacent to this type of intervention. First, the paper outlines the characteristics of the NCN, the philosophy behind the development of urban traffic-free paths and the barriers to cycling which such interventions seek to overcome. Then findings of a controlled cross-sectional survey of two neighbourhoods in a medium size town in the English Midlands (which are demographically similar except that one is located adjacent to a section of NCN urban traffic-free cycle path intervention) are discussed. In conclusion the paper reveals that provision of NCN urban traffic-free cycle paths alone may be insufficient in encouraging a shift from car to cycling for everyday travel purposes. The data from the study corroborates evidence that suggests that a wider co-ordinated multi-faceted approach to promoting cycling is required which combines social marketing with physical measures including; wider speed restrictions in urban areas, investment in high quality segregated cycle facilities on major roads, and general land use and transport policies that ‘advantage cycling’ and reduce the convenience of the car. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper reviews public transport crowding valuation research, using a number of primary studies conducted in the UK, USA, Australia and Israel. We identify three measures used to value crowding (a time multiplier, a monetary value per time unit and a monetary value per trip), and associated ways of representing crowding in stated preference experiments. Although a number of different types of crowding in terms of location are identified, namely in-vehicle, access-way, entrance and platform/station, the majority of reviewed studies investigate only in-vehicle crowding. Despite the different characteristics of the reviewed studies, they all report that crowding would increase the value of travel time savings, which can be viewed as an additional component of generalised time. This paper also comments on the role that the WTP for crowding reduction can play in project appraisal, and suggests some important avenues for future public transport crowding valuation research. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper presents operational metrics to determine a passenger transportation system''s resilience to terrorism. The metrics range from those specific to the number of trips to more holistic measures that include the contribution of these trips directly and indirectly to economic activity. These metrics can aid decision-makers in rendering more informed judgments about resource allocation and how to design a portfolio of security and recovery strategies. The paper also provides a framework for evaluating transportation risk, including the important role of perceptions in potentially amplifying these risks. It provides a range of strategies to promote resilience as well. Resilience of a transportation system is then quantified using the real-world case of the 2005 London subway and bus bombings. In terms of ordinary resilience, we find that 77.4 percent of total journey reductions on attacked modes were offset by increases in substitute modes for the 4 months following the attacks. We also estimate that 76.9 percent of total journey reductions on attacked modes were the result of a “fear factor,” as opposed to capacity reductions. The paper concludes with a set of proposed prospective resilience measures to evaluate the potential resilience of a transportation system. These metrics are based on the vulnerability, flexibility, and resource availability to cope with a terrorist attack or natural disaster. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper examines how complex transport projects are reported in the media using the Transport Innovation Fund bid for Greater Manchester as a case study. It demonstrates how projects are simplified and distorted in the media in a systematic way. Such distortion is explained by a scheme’s perceived newsworthiness, its complexity and the contemporary nature of news media production. The paper has implications for future research in this area and the implementation of sustainable transport policy. It urges transport professionals to both better understand, and engage directly with, the media if they are to maximise the benefits of efforts to shape travel behaviour. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: There is a demonstrable link between parking availability, price and mode choice, and parking policy has been shown to be a powerful demand management tool. Parking however is clearly an area of policy conflict since using it to manage demand may reduce revenue generation, or (be perceived to) damage the local economy. In terms of on-street and off-street parking there are a wide range of users who often have conflicting opinions, which have to be taken into account in its management, invariably leading to parking policies and measures that do not maximise the demand management potential of parking. This paper presents a range of public and business opinion data, from the case study of Edinburgh, Scotland, UK, collected as part of the consultation for its parking strategy in 2005–2006. The strategy covers a wider geographical area than simply the city centre, and whilst this paper makes reference to this wider area it primarily deals with the city centre since that is where the majority of the parking strategy issues are to be found. After setting the policy and political context, the paper goes on to present these data. It then shows how the city''s parking policies were changed in response to the consultation. These policy changes are compared with parking policies that would solely manage travel demand, to demonstrate how the political process leads to compromise in the formulation of parking policies and measures. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Transport policy should take into account the needs of those who are socially excluded. To facilitate this, a software tool, AMELIA, is being developed. After a description of AMELIA and how it is used, the paper continues with a discussion about the analysis of the increase in the number of elderly people who can reach the centre of St Albans in Hertfordshire in Great Britain as the result of the implementation of four policy actions, including the cost implications. The paper is concluded with discussion about the potential role of AMELIA as a tool for policy analysis. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In 2004, the UK''s aviation industry emitted an estimated 9.8MtC; a figure that, without direct intervention, is projected to rise to 16–21MtC by 2030 according to the UK Government. As the UK''s 60% carbon-reduction target approaches, so aviation is likely to become a dominant carbon-emitting sector. This paper calculates the proportion of carbon emissions resulting from the Government''s projected aviation growth in relation to a contracting carbon budget. It concludes that the Government must urgently address today''s very high levels of growth in emissions within the industry, and ensure future growth can be reconciled with the Government''s own carbon targets. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper looks at walking and cycling policy implementation activities in British local authorities. It presents the main findings of a questionnaire survey of all British local transport authorities on this issue. In the absence of comparable local figures on modal share and modal trends for these two modes an index was developed from the survey for distinguishing between more and less active authorities. The paper also presents a comparison of the characteristics of the top (most active) and bottom (least active) 25% of authorities as determined through this new index. Conclusions are drawn on the most important factors influencing the implementation of policies for walking and cycling by British local authorities. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The London Congestion Charge (LCC) is a transport policy with a precise spatial footprint. As such, its impact on the transport system can be expected to vary over space, providing an opportunity to explore the geographical reach of local transport interventions. This paper assesses whether the exemption of Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) from the LCC affected the registration rate of these vehicles in Greater London and the surrounding areas. The analysis uses official data on the number of HEVs registered across the local authorities of the United Kingdom. This dataset is assessed using [1] exploratory spatial analysis to determine the degree of spatial variation in HEV registrations, [2] area classifications to consider if HEV registrations diminish as nearness to the LCC recedes, and [3] spatial regression models to evaluate the association between distance to the LCC and HEV registrations, controlling for other area characteristics (i.e. socioeconomic, household, and transport system variables). The results clearly show that nearness to the LCC is positively associated with HEV registrations, implying that this form of transport policy is effective at promoting the adoption of low emission vehicles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The automobile commute makes an important contribution to carbon emissions but has proven stubbornly resistant to modal shift policy initiatives. In this paper we use theories of social practice to develop insights into why this stubbornness might exist, and what might help accelerate transitions to bus- and cycle-commuting. By analyzing qualitative data about everyday mobility in two UK cities, we examine how the availability of the constituent elements of bus- and cycle-commuting practices is crucial for modal shift to occur, but they are often absent. We also draw attention to time-space contingencies that render recruitment to low-carbon commuting practices more or less likely, including how commuting is sequenced with other social practices and how the sites of these practices interact with the affordances, and spatial infrastructure, of bus- and cycle-commuting. These insights lead us to argue that choice and land use planning focussed policy initiatives designed to invoke modal shift need to coexist in integrated policy configurations with initiatives designed to reshape both mobility and non-mobility practices. This means addressing the structural barriers caused by the lack of availability of the elements that constitute bus- and cycle-commuting, and intervening in the timing and spatiality of a range of social practices so as to reduce the tendency for commutes to have spatial and temporal characteristics that militate against the use of bus and cycle modes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the planned expansion of high speed rail (HSR) in the UK, demand for longer-distance travel is expected to increase significantly over the coming decades. This paper presents a study into attitudes and perceptions of long distance travel in the UK, particularly in relation to HSR. A questionnaire was developed to investigate attitudes to travelling long distances and to HSR, importance of journey characteristics and current travel behaviours. A factor analysis of 46 attitude items yielded six factors: travel security, improvement to road and air, prestige of HSR, comfort, negative aspects of HSR and the usefulness of travel time. Analyses showed significant demographic and travel characteristic differences across the factors. There was also evidence of a more negative impact and lower prestige for people living closer to proposed HSR routes. Willingness to pay for travel time saved was related to a number of journey characteristics but the utility of time was also important. The findings are considered in light of theories of attitude change, attitudes to travel and sustainability and the implications for the future development of HSR policy, particularly in terms of balancing increased fares with utility of travel time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growth of aeronautical and non-aeronautical activities at airports not only creates capacity constraints but also has a substantial impact on the airport's environmental footprint. This paper discusses the different approaches to ground access at airports in the UK and Australia. In the intensifying debate on how to address transport congestion and the related environmental degradation (i.e. CO2 emissions), public ground transport can be seen as a potential cornerstone in an airport's effort to address the issue. It is hence unsurprising that a key element of the UK airport approach has been to promote a shift from the private car to more sustainable transport options for both passengers and employees. Surprisingly, Australia appears (despite its relative poor environmental performance) to focus much more on the expected growth of aviation activity and measures that will aid in addressing the resulting road congestion. In contrast to UK airports, Australian airports do not use environmental targets or educational measures in their ground access plans. Our findings and the lessons learned from the UK approach suggest that more sustainable ground transport strategies could aid Australian airports in reducing their transport congestion and resulting carbon footprint. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Economic growth has traditionally been linked to road freight transport demand, leading to a steady rise in social and environmental impacts. Concern about this problem has caused the EU to promote a decoupling strategy aimed at boosting sustainable development in European countries by improving the efficiency of transport systems without curbing economic growth. Over the last few years empirical evidence in some countries such as the United Kingdom has shown an increase in GDP while the volume of road freight traffic has remained stable or even decreased. This paper compares recent decoupling trends by analyzing the evolution of road tonne-kms/GDP relationship in the United Kingdom and Spain from 1999 to 2007. This comparison seeks to identify the main differences and key drivers of decoupling in both countries. We first provide an overview of the divergences between both economic structures and levels of road transport intensity. Then we conduct a decomposition analysis in order to identify the variables that explain the evolution of truck traffic per unit of GDP in each country. The results show that the increasing share of services in GDP has substantially contributed to decreasing road transport demand in both cases. Changes in road transport intensity due to improvements in logistic and supply chain management have been more successful in the UK than in Spain. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Ever since the 1970s, Demand Responsive Transport (DRT) has been promoted as a transport solution in circumstances where more traditional services are not economically viable, although so far a range of barriers has prevented its widespread adoption. More recently, new developments in operational and vehicle technology, coupled with significant cuts to public transport subsidy budgets, promote a willingness to explore ‘institutionally challenging’ options such as integrating transport provision across a range of different sectors. This has once more pushed the DRT concept forward as a possible option for saving money whilst retaining opportunities for accessibility. Accordingly, it is now useful to explore the current provision of DRT in Great Britain, in order to determine what type of services exist and to examine which are working well and why. Specifically, the paper draws on a national survey of DRT providers to examine the design, performance, rationale and likely futures of DRT schemes. Key findings suggest a growing role for stakeholders from the voluntary sector and the private sector, the latter resulting in a greater use of smaller vehicles. Linear regression models highlight that passenger numbers are influenced by the size of operation (in terms of seats offered) and by the use of smaller ‘car’ vehicles, particularly in rural areas. Increasingly, objectives highlight the importance of DRT in providing access and geographical coverage, though insufficient revenue presents a challenge in achieving this. The long term financial sustainability of such schemes continues to be questioned, with a limited number of schemes recognised as commercially sustainable. Naturally, therefore, cost and funding remain dominant concerns of DRT service providers. The organisational response to funding reductions has been diverse. The result is that DRT services have either been withdrawn or, in some cases, replaced conventional bus services due to DRT being a more cost-effective way of meeting local needs. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Transport policies to increase active and sustainable travel in Britain have focused mainly on persuading people of the health benefits of walking and cycling for short trips, and have assumed that if people can be persuaded that more active travel has personal benefits then behavioural change will follow. Research reported in this paper, based mainly on detailed qualitative research in four English towns, argues that the complexities and contingencies that most people encounter in everyday life often make such behavioural change difficult. Attention is focused on three sets of factors: perceptions of risk; constraints created by family and household responsibilities; and perceptions of normality. It is suggested that unless such factors are tackled directly then policies to increase levels of walking and cycling will have limited success. In particular, it is argued that there needs to be a much more integrated approach to transport policy that combines interventions to make walking and (especially) cycling as risk-free as possible with restrictions on car use and attitudinal shifts in the ways in which motorists view other road users. Such policies also need to be linked to wider social and economic change which, in combination, creates an environment in which walking or cycling for short trips in urban areas is perceived as the logical and normal means of travel and using the car is viewed as exceptional. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Children’s travel behaviour varies from that of adults in several ways: they have less choice about where they go and often they are not allowed to travel unescorted by an older person. The factors that influence children’s travel behaviour have changed in recent years, with the development of car-oriented lifestyles, increased numbers of mothers in employment and changes in attitudes towards children’s independent mobility. The purpose of this paper is to examine the nature of children’s travel behaviour and its implications for their volumes of physical activity and so for their health. After considering the nature of children’s travel behaviour and the factors that influence it, the effects of children’s travel behaviour on their volumes of physical activity are discussed; then some measures being adopted in Britain to reverse the adverse trends are described. Conclusions are drawn in terms of the policy implications. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The late 1990s and early 2000s witnessed a growing interest amongst UK academics and policy makers in the issue of transport disadvantage and, more innovatively, how this might relate to growing concerns about the social exclusion of low income groups and communities. Studies (predominantly in the United Kingdom) began to make more explicit the links policy between poverty, transport disadvantage, access to key services and economic and social exclusion (see for example Church and Frost, 2000; ; Raje, 2003). By 2003, the UK Social Exclusion Unit had published and its now internationally recognised report on this subject, which subsequently resulted in the development of a set of transport policy guidances to local authorities in England to deliver what is now commonly referred to as accessibility planning as part of their Local Transport Plans (). Since this time, researchers, policy makers and practitioners in several other countries became interested in adopting a social exclusion approach to transport planning, largely because of its utility in identifying the role of transport, land use planning and service delivery decisions in creating and reinforcing poverty and social disadvantage. Eight years on from the SEU report, we can begin to reflect on the extent to which a social exclusion approach to the research of transport disadvantage has been successful in opening up new avenues of research enquiry and/or identifying new theoretical perspectives and/or methodological approaches. The paper begins by briefly revisiting the basic theories and core definitions which underpin and inform a social exclusion perspective. It then considers how these have been translated and understood in terms of transport. Secondly, it considers some of the emergent empirical research of transport-related exclusion that has attempted to measure and model the interactions between transport and mobility inequalities and relational negative social outcomes. Thirdly, it offers observations on progress in some key areas of policy and practice, with specific reference to the UK and Australia. It concludes by suggesting how further progress might be made on this issue and considers whether the social exclusion agenda is still a relevant approach for achieving this. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper develops a system dynamics model of the UK take-up of electric vehicles over the next 40 years. The model extends previous work by to allow analysis of the UK market. The impact on uptake and CO2 emissions of factors such as subsidies, range, charge point availability, emission rates and a revenue preserving tax are considered. We show that subsidies have little impact on take-up under a traditional business as usual case. However, when we introduce a conditional marketing scenario, they play an important role in tipping the market into a successful trajectory. The sensitivity of the results to assumptions on word of mouth, average vehicle life and emissions rates are explored and we find that changing these can result in a greater impact on take-up and emissions than policy or vehicle attribute factors. Our results have important policy implications. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In many countries a decline in children''s active and independent mobility, like walking and cycling is registered. In this paper the development of children''s mobility in Denmark, Finland, Great Britain and Norway is compared to examine differences and similarities in these countries. Accessible data are used, which implies that not all of them are directly comparable, but they are employed as indicators of development. The trends are the same in these four countries, an increase in car use and decrease in bicycling and walking. Distance to school has increased, both as a result of bigger units and more children in private schools. Traffic is an important reason for taking children to school by car, but convenience for the parents is also part of it. Organized leisure activities has also contributed to less walking and cycling, in addition to more time pressure in families, increased access to car(s) and easier access to parents as a ‘transport service’ by the help of the mobile phone. The measures that different countries use in trying to meet the challenges of children''s mobility tend to focus on the school trip and most often on traffic safety, both at national and local levels. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Domestic express coach services in Germany have long been heavily restricted by regulation, although offerings comparable to countries like, for example, Great Britain or Sweden bear substantial opportunities for competition, the environment, and mobility. In this paper, we motivate market entry in the German express coach market for local public and integrated transport companies by high profitability rates in other countries and the availability of bus facilities and skills. This is followed by the evaluation of supply and demand. Supply is represented by an analysis of external and internal costs showing that express coaches have significant cost advantages that are intensified by the possible internalization of external costs. Demand is represented by a survey of customers that is evaluated with a conjoint analysis. Our results suggest a market share for express coach services in Germany of at least 5.3%. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Whilst it has been used since the 1960s, the UK government have promoted bus-based Park and Ride (P&R) particularly heavily over the last 20 years as a tool to deal with traffic congestion and air pollution. There has long since been a view however that P&R in its current guise may actually be exacerbating the problems of traffic congestion, fuel use and emissions instead of mitigating them. This paper aims to reconsider this proposition whilst also testing a range of alternative forms of car–bus interchange in the context of traffic reduction, drawing on evidence from a large survey of P&R users in Cambridge, UK. Overall the results suggest that while current P&R significantly increases the vehicle miles travelled by its users, some of the alternative models presented potentially offer considerable improvements. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Relatively little is known about the composition of greenhouse gas emissions from personal, non-business travel at the disaggregate levels. This paper aims to give insights into the distribution of emissions amongst the UK population. When including non-carbon climate effects air travel dominates overall greenhouse gas emissions. There is a huge range in emissions, with the highest 20% of emitters producing 61% of emissions. This ‘60-20 emission’ rule is surprisingly similar across units and scale of the analysis. Disaggregated data tell a different story than aggregated data. While income, working status, age and car ownership are significantly related to overall emissions, factors related to accessibility, household location and gender are not. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Option values and non-use values are well-known concepts in environmental economics, but so far there been few attempts to apply the concepts to the transportation field. This paper therefore firstly reviews empirical studies on transport option and non-use values, and secondly examines the inclusion of option and non-use values in five rail scheme appraisals in the UK. We find that whilst the evidence base is small, the importance of option and non-use values is large where user benefits are low and for projects involving the provision (or loss) of commuting opportunities (including station openings/closures). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In the context of growing policy awareness in the UK of the links between transport and social exclusion, this paper describes case-study research of four different transport projects funded under the UK Department for Transport''s Urban Bus Challenge Fund (UBC) with the specific aim of facilitating social inclusion in the areas they serve. Through surveys and interviews with end-users, the study qualitatively and quantitatively evaluated the value of these new services to local residents in terms of their increased economic opportunities and other quality of life benefits. It also aimed to identify their wider contribution to the renewal and regeneration of the deprived areas they serve through depth interviews with professional local stakeholders. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper focuses on the research activities, findings and planned products of one of the UK EPSRC-funded DISTILLATE (Design and Implementation Support Tools for Integrated Local Land use, Transport and the Environment) projects on the funding of transport and land-use schemes. Research activities have included a literature review, dialogue with local authority case studies and a funding workshop. The research identified and explored a range of barriers to funding, including lack of revenue funding, difficulties in obtaining funding for ‘soft’ schemes, the formation of partnerships and timing-related issues. The research also revealed that the funding system is failing to meet the needs of the current transport policy focus on managing travel demand, rather than being a supply-led process. The key project outputs are described, which include a ‘funding toolkit’ for local authorities, and guidance for funding bodies regarding the barriers faced. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: There is now an increased understanding of the need to design urban transport and land-use systems to be more sustainable, and of the policies which are needed to achieve this. However, work by the European Conference of Ministers of Transport has highlighted the institutional, acceptability, financial, information, regulatory and process barriers to implementing them. These barriers are evident in the UK, even though it has a particularly developed approach to local transport planning. As a contribution to overcoming them, a 4-year research programme has been conducted to develop decision-support tools for local government. The paper describes the international background to this research programme, its objectives and overall structure and its interaction with local authorities. The barriers to sustainability identified by the programme''s local authority partners are presented, the development of the selected products from the research programme is outlined and the challenges in transferring them into practice are discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Transport is a major user of carbon-based fuels, and achievement of the targets set at the Kyoto Protocol and elsewhere means that the EU and national governments must reduce CO2 emissions in all sectors, including transport. This paper reports on a recently completed study for the UK government on the options available to meet a 60% CO2 reduction target by 2030 in the UK transport sector. The study follows a backcasting study approach, developing a business as usual baseline for transport emissions, and two alternative scenarios to 2030. Different policy measures are assessed and assembled into mutually supporting policy packages (PP). Although 2030 seems a long way ahead, action must be taken now if the targets for CO2 reduction are to be met. The achievement of a carbon-efficient transport future, combined with holding travel levels at present levels, is likely to be very difficult. A major transformation in the way transport and urban planning is carried out is required. As transport and urban planners, we need to think very differently in tackling the new environmental and liveability imperative. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper describes a research study, which explores alternative future scenarios for Great Britain in the year 2030 and the implications these have for travel demand and transport provision. Five alternative future scenarios are represented in the GB national transport model and forecasts are obtained for trip making, traffic levels, congestion and emissions in 2030. For all scenarios it is expected that there will be significant traffic growth. Traffic growth is restricted most in scenarios including distance-based road charging on motorways and trunk roads. However, congestion and carbon dioxide emissions are most effectively limited in scenarios with congestion-based road charging, major improvements to urban public transport and investment in new fuel technologies and in improving engine efficiency. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The British government was planning to introduce a system of road-user charging for lorries in 2008. In July 2005, it decided to abandon these plans and incorporate the development of a charging scheme for trucks into a future road pricing system for all categories of traffic. This paper examines the objectives of the proposed lorry road-user charging scheme in the UK and argues that the government''s plans for LRUC would have been inappropriate. An alternative method of road-user charging for lorries is proposed which would meet the main objectives of LRUC at much lower cost, disruption and risk and act as an interim measure until it is possible, technically and politically, to introduce general road pricing in the UK. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The paper reports on the development of UK transport targets for CO2 emissions for 2050. Five key studies containing future carbon emissions scenarios for the UK were used to establish targets for overall reductions in emissions to achieve stabilisation at 550 and 450ppm of atmospheric CO2. Two approaches were used to consider the proportion of total emissions that would be attributable to transport in the future: 26% of total emissions as now and an increase to 41% of total emissions in line with forecasts. The overall targets and expected contributions from transport were used to derive target emissions for the transport sector to be achieved by 2050, which ranged from 8.2 to 25.8MtC. Even the weakest of these targets represents a considerable reduction from current emissions levels. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper reports research on the valuations of public transport time relative to car travel time and on the valuations of the walk time, wait time and service headway associated with public transport use. The results are derived from a meta-analysis of a very large data set of British empirical evidence and are set against a review of previous research. A large number of methodological and policy relevant results emerge, some of which challenge established conventions, and the implications for value of time recommendations, policy and further research are spelt out. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Separation of infrastructure from operations in rail transport raises the issue of what should be the structure and level of charges for infrastructure use. This paper outlines the solution adopted in Britain, and how it has developed. It concludes that the principle defect in the current system is the lack of any charge to reflect scarce capacity. A way of measuring the capacity requirements of different types of train and of identifying their opportunity cost is put forward, but it is recognised that reflecting this in the charges would be complex. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]