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Objective Handgrip strength, an indicator of overall muscle strength, has been found to be associated with slower rate of cognitive decline and decreased risk for cognitive impairment and dementia. However, evaluating the replicability of associations between aging-related changes in physical and cognitive functioning is challenging due to differences in study designs and analytical models. A multiple-study coordinated analysis approach was used to generate new longitudinal results based on comparable construct-level measurements and identical statistical models and to facilitate replication and research synthesis. Methods We performed coordinated analysis on 9 cohort studies affiliated with the Integrative Analysis of Longitudinal Studies of Aging and Dementia (IALSA) research network. Bivariate linear mixed models were used to examine associations among individual differences in baseline level, rate of change, and occasion-specific variation across grip strength and indicators of cognitive function, including mental status, processing speed, attention and working memory, perceptual reasoning, verbal ability, and learning and memory. Results were summarized using meta-analysis. Results After adjustment for covariates, we found an overall moderate association between change in grip strength and change in each cognitive domain for both males and females: Average correlation coefficient was 0.55 (95% CI = 0.44–0.56). We also found a high level of heterogeneity in this association across studies. Discussion Meta-analytic results from nine longitudinal studies showed consistently positive associations between linear rates of change in grip strength and changes in cognitive functioning. Future work will benefit from the examination of individual patterns of change to understand the heterogeneity in rates of aging and health-related changes across physical and cognitive biomarkers.

Objectives Social-emotional well-being is said to improve over adulthood, and studies of couples’ age differences have focused primarily on marital conflict. The way couples discuss their relationship story predicts marital quality among newlyweds and long-married couples alike, yet older and younger couples’ accounts have never been compared. The current study examined age differences in couples’ use of I/we-talk, emotion words, and immediacy (i.e., an urgent and unresolved style) during a relationship history discussion and their subsequent mood reactivity and appraisals. Method Married couples (N = 186 individuals within 93 couples, aged 22–77) recounted the story of their relationship then rated the discussion and their negative mood. Mediation models assessed the 3 linguistic features as parallel dyadic mediators linking couple age to negative mood responses and appraisals, controlling for global marital satisfaction, and baseline negative mood. Secondary analyses examined partners’ concordance in language use. Results Compared with younger couples, older couples used more positive than negative words and less immediacy which, in turn, was associated with husbands’ and wives’ less negative mood and more positive appraisals, only among husbands. Partners in older couples used more similar I/we-talk and emotional language, but these were unrelated to mood or appraisals. Discussion This study extends our understanding of how marital interactions differ by age in the understudied context of relationship history discussions, which may grow increasingly important for couples’ well-being with older age. Findings broadly align with social-emotional aging theories and uncover novel linguistic features relevant to the age-related emotional benefits of joint reminiscing.

Objectives Prior research has documented age differences in risky decisions and indicates that they are susceptible to gain versus loss framing. However, previous studies focused on “decisions from description” that explicitly spell out the probabilities involved. The present study expands this literature by examining the effects of framing on age differences in the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART), a widely used and ecologically valid measure of experience-based risky decision making that involves pumping a virtual balloon. Methods In a preregistered study, younger (aged 18–30, n = 129) and older adults (aged 60 and older, n = 125) were randomly assigned to either a gain version of the BART, where pumping the balloon added monetary gains, or a loss version, where pumping the balloon avoided monetary losses. Results We found a significant age by frame interaction on risk-taking: in the loss frame, older adults pumped more frequently and experienced more popped balloons than younger adults, whereas in the gain frame no significant age differences were found. Total performance on the BART did not vary by age or frame. Supplementary analyses indicated that age differences in pumping rates were most pronounced at the beginning of the BART and leveled off in subsequent trials. Controlling for age differences in motivation, personality, and cognition did not account for age differences in risk-taking. Discussion In combination, findings suggest that age differences in risk-taking on the BART are more pronounced when the task context emphasizes avoiding losses rather than achieving gains.

Objectives Although researchers have linked intergenerational emotional cohesion (IEC) to psychological well-being (PWB) among older adults, the mechanisms and conditions under which IEC is related to PWB—particularly in rural areas—are less well understood. This study analyzed data from rural China to examine whether loneliness mediated the relationship between IEC and PWB, and whether friendship ties moderated the strength of the direct and indirect relationships between IEC and PWB. Methods Mediation and moderated mediation models were tested using a sample of rural adults aged 60 and older (N = 958) from the Longitudinal Study of Older Adults in Anhui Province, China. Measures included IEC, friendship ties, loneliness, and 2 PWB indicators—depressive symptoms and life satisfaction. Results The results revealed that IEC was negatively related to loneliness, which in turn was associated with depressive symptoms and life satisfaction. Furthermore, this indirect pathway linking IEC and depressive symptoms (but not life satisfaction) was positively conditioned on the size of friendship ties. Discussion This study advances our understanding of the mechanism through which IEC influences PWB in older adults. Alleviating loneliness could help boost PWB. Other implications for practice and future research are discussed.

ObjectivesArterial elasticity and physical fitness are 2 important cardiovascular health factors that influence cognition in older adults. Working memory capacity (WMC), a core component underlying cognitive aging across many cognitive domains, may be affected by individual differences in cardiovascular health in older adults. This study aims to identify in older adults: (a) separate and combined effects of these 2 cardiovascular health factors on WMC and (b) which of the 2 factors is more critical in influencing WMC.MethodsWMC in 89 healthy older adults was assessed by 2 complex span tasks. Arterial elasticity was assessed by pulse pressure (PsP). Physical fitness was measured by an established proxy of VO2 max (MET). Effects of PsP and MET on WMC were evaluated via step-wise regressions.ResultsAfter controlling for age, sex, and education, PsP and MET were separately predictive of WMC in older adults. Together, the combined effect of PsP and MET was more predictive of WMC than fitness alone, but not more than PsP alone. Mediation analysis indicates that the relationship between MET and WMC was completely mediated by PsP.DiscussionThis study innovatively demonstrates that though arterial elasticity and physical fitness separately predict WMC, the former completely mediates the relationship between fitness and WMC. This suggests that biologically based cardiovascular health factors like arterial elasticity are crucial individual difference variables that should be measured and monitored in cognitive aging studies as well as in physical interventions that are designed to improve cognition in healthy aging.

Objectives The current study examined within-person associations of self-reports of impaired current memory functioning and perceived decline with depressive symptoms in older adults without cognitive impairment, and whether these associations were moderated by individuals’ levels of neuroticism, conscientiousness, and extraversion. Methods Samples were drawn from the Einstein Aging Study, Rush Memory and Aging Project (MAP), Minority Aging Research Study (MARS), Health and Retirement Study (HRS), and National Health and Aging Trends Study (NHATS), with over 8,000 participants (65+ years) included across data sets. In a series of coordinated analyses, multilevel linear models tested within-person relationships over periods of up to 22 years. Results Across HRS and NHATS samples, self-reports of impaired current memory functioning covaried with depressive symptoms over time. This association was moderated by neuroticism, such that the association was stronger for individuals with higher levels of neuroticism. Across all samples, perceived memory decline covaried with depressive symptoms over time. This association was moderated by neuroticism in MAP/MARS, HRS, and NHATS, such that the association was stronger for individuals with higher levels of neuroticism. Discussion Self-reports of impaired current memory functioning and perceived memory decline are important determinants of older adults’ psychological well-being. In our results, at times when older adults perceive poorer memory functioning or decline, they also tend to report more depressive symptoms. Further, results from two larger data sets suggest that individuals’ level of neuroticism may determine the extent to which self-reports of memory impairment and depressive symptoms covary over time.

Objectives We aimed at examining between-person and within-person associations across age trajectories of perceptual speed and loneliness in old age. Method We applied multilevel models to 4 waves of data collected over 6 years from 1,491 participants of the Berlin Aging Study II (60–88 years at baseline, 50% women) to disentangle between-person and within-person associations across age trajectories of perceptual speed and both emotional and social loneliness. Sex and education were considered as relevant individual characteristics and included as covariates in the model. Results Analyses revealed that on average perceptual speed exhibited moderate within-person age-related declines, whereas facets of loneliness were rather stable. Perceptual speed did not predict age trajectories of emotional or social loneliness, at either the between- or within-person level. In contrast, loneliness discriminated individuals at the between-person level, such that those feeling emotionally or socially more lonely showed lower cognitive performance than those feeling emotionally or socially less lonely. Predictive effects of social loneliness were stronger for relatively young people (i.e., in their mid to late 60s) than for relatively older participants (i.e., in their 80s). In addition, predictive effects of social loneliness for perceptual speed at the within-person level were modest and deviated in direction and size from between-person social loneliness effects among those in their mid- to late 60s, whereas they did not among those in their 80s. Discussion We conclude that loneliness may serve as a precursor for basic cognitive functioning in old age and suggest routes for further inquiry.

Objectives Episodic memory is age-sensitive but can be strengthened by targeted training interventions. The method of loci (MoL) is a classic mnemonic which if successfully implemented greatly improves memory performance. We developed and investigated the effects of a MoL training program implemented in a smart phone application (app) with the aim of studying usage of the application, training effect and its modifiability by age, predictors for MoL proficiency, transfer effects to a face-name memory task, and perceived benefit in everyday memory. Method A total of 359 adults participated. Instruction and training of the MoL, transfer test (face-name paired associates cued recall task), and surveys were performed in an in-house developed app. Results The app interested people across the adult life span. Older adults practiced the most, whereas younger and young-old participants showed the highest level of MoL proficiency. Level of proficiency was modulated by amount of practice, but in the oldest participants this effect was less pronounced. Greater self-rated health was associated with higher level of proficiency. No transfer effect was observed. Among those who answered the survey, about half expressed that MoL training had benefitted memory in their everyday life. Discussion App-based memory training in the MoL can be delivered successfully via an app across the adult life span. Level of performance reached in training is variable but generally high, and mainly influenced by amount of training and age of the participants. Our data suggest plasticity across the life span, but to a lesser degree for adults between 70 and 90 years.

Objectives The theory of selective survival suggests that possibly around 70–75 years of age, Blacks may display substantive changes in their pattern of cognitive decline. This study examined the age-graded pattern of cognitive decline within older Blacks by describing a trend that characterizes differences in the change of cognitive decline from ages 51.5 to 95.5, and hypothesized that this age-graded pattern is nonlinear. Method Utilizing 2 waves of longitudinal data from the Baltimore Study of Black Aging, this study used multilevel modeling to test whether the interaction between age and the 3-year study period (time between waves) had a positive effect on changes in inductive reasoning, declarative memory, working memory, and perceptual speed. Results A significant positive interaction between age and wave was found for inductive reasoning, demonstrating an age-grade pattern of change/decline in cognitive pattern for Blacks aged 51.5–95.4. Simple slope probing via the Johnson–Neyman Technique suggested that Black adults ~64 years and younger experienced significant decline in inductive reasoning across study time, whereas for those older than 63.71, the decline was nonsignificant. No significant age–wave interactions were found for declarative memory, working memory, or perceptual speed. Discussion Findings suggest a selective survival effect for inductive reasoning ability among Blacks. With decline evident so early, common cognitive intervention programs targeting adults 65+ may come too late for Blacks, signifying the importance and urgency for early health interventions and public policy designed to promote cognitive reserve.

Objectives As our social worlds become increasingly digitally connected, so too has concern about older adults falling victim to “phishing” emails, which attempt to deceive a person into identity theft and fraud. In the present study, we investigated whether older age is associated with differences in perceived suspiciousness of phishing emails. Methods Sixty-five cognitively normal middle-aged to older adults rated a series of genuine and phishing emails on a scale from definitely safe to definitely suspicious. Results Although older age was not related to a shift in overall perception of email safety, older age was related to worse discrimination between genuine and phishing emails, according to perceived suspiciousness. Discussion These findings suggest that cognitively normal older adults may be at particular risk for online fraud because of an age-associated reduction in their sensitivity to the credibility of emails.

Objectives A growing body of research has identified factors related to loneliness among older adults. Fewer have investigated predictors of loneliness within married couples. This analysis investigates how spousal support and strain relate with loneliness within older couples (age 50+), and whether these associations are modified by functional limitation. The study focuses on Mexico, a country experiencing rapid aging occurring alongside historically limited institutional support for older adults, and where traditional gender roles extend to marriage. Methods The analytic sample consisted of 3,584 husband–wife dyads from the 2012 and 2015 Mexican Health and Aging Study. Loneliness was measured using the Three-Item Loneliness Scale. Associations between spousal support, strain, and loneliness were estimated within husband–wife dyads using the Actor–Partner Interdependence Model. Results Experiencing more spousal support was associated with less loneliness, whereas experiencing spousal strain was associated with more loneliness 3 years later among married adults. The associations between spousal support/strain and loneliness were stronger among husbands with limitations in activities of daily living (ADL) when compared to their counterparts without ADL limitations. Discussion Among married adults, spousal support and strain may be important factors to understand loneliness within marriage. Effects should be interpreted within the context of functional limitation.

Objectives This study investigated whether older adults with better relationships with their adult children have better subjective and objective sleep quality than older adults with less-positive relationships with their children. We also examined whether depressive symptoms and loneliness mediated the association between parent–child relationships and sleep among older adults. Methods Data were used from the second wave of the National Social life, Health, and Aging Project, in which 548 respondents (aged 62–90) participated in the sleep survey to measure their actigraph sleep activity for three consecutive days. Respondents also reported sleep quality (i.e., sleep duration and insomnia symptoms), contact frequency, and emotional closeness with their children. Results Results from structural equation modeling showed that greater emotional closeness with children was directly associated with better objective sleep characteristics (i.e., sleep fragmentation and amount of sleep). Also, more frequent contact with children was directly related to fewer insomnia symptoms among older adults. Moreover, emotional closeness with children was indirectly linked to insomnia symptoms via depressive symptoms among older adults. Discussion This study provided evidence for psychological pathways linking parent–child relationships and older parents’ subjective sleep. The findings have implications for health professionals and family counselors who help people with sleep problems and relationship difficulties.

Objectives Subjective aging, including subjective age and self-perceptions of aging (SPA), predicts health-related outcomes in older adults. Despite its association with cardiovascular risk factors, little is known about the association between subjective aging and the incidence of cardiovascular disease. Therefore, the present study examined whether subjective age and SPA are related to the incidence of heart conditions and stroke. Methods The sample comprises 10,695 participants aged 50–100 years from the Health and Retirement Study. Subjective age, SPA, demographic factors, and health-related behaviors, body mass index (BMI), hypertension, diabetes, and depressive symptoms were assessed at baseline. Self-reported physician diagnosis of heart conditions and stroke were assessed biennially over up to 9 years of follow-up. Results Controlling for demographic factors, an older subjective age and more negative SPA were related to a higher risk of incident heart conditions and stroke. Feeling older and holding negative SPA were associated with around 40% higher risk of experiencing heart conditions over time. An older subjective age and negative SPA were related to almost twofold and 30% higher risk of incident stroke, respectively. Health risk behaviors, BMI, hypertension, diabetes, and depressive symptoms accounted for part of the associations between subjective aging and heart diseases and stroke. Conclusions Consistent with the literature on subjective aging and cardiovascular risk factors, this large prospective study indicates that an older subjective age and negative SPA increase the risk of incident stroke and other cardiovascular diseases.

Objectives Although the evidence linking views on aging (VoA) with aging outcomes is robust, little is known about how different types of VoA may interact to influence such outcomes. Therefore, this study examined two types of VoA, age stereotypes (AS), representing general VoA, and self-perceptions of aging (SPA), representing personal VoA. We operationalized SPA in terms of awareness of age-related change (AARC), distinguishing between gain- and loss-related SPA (e.g., awareness of positive and negative age-related changes, respectively). Based on theoretical reasoning, we hypothesized that AS would be an antecedent of SPA, and that the effect of AS on physical and mental health would be mediated by SPA. Method A total of 819 German and U.S. adults aged 40–98 completed a survey on VoA, physical health, and mental health at baseline and 2.5 years later. Structural equation modeling with latent variables was used to examine the effects of Time 1 AS (predictor) and Time 2 gain- and loss-related SPA (mediators) on physical and mental health outcomes. Results As hypothesized, AS predicted later SPA. Loss-related SPA mediated the effect of AS on physical health; both gain- and loss-related SPA mediated the effect of AS on mental health. Discussion Congruent with theoretical assumptions, our findings provide empirical support for a directional pathway by which AS shape later SPA. We conclude that AS and SPA may affect physical health outcomes more strongly than mental health outcomes. Studies that assess both types of VoA are needed to illuminate the pathways by which VoA influence aging outcomes.

Objectives Previous diary work indicates that older people experience more intrusive and unwanted thoughts (i.e., cognitive interference) on days with stressors. We examined additional predictors of daily cognitive interference to enhance understanding of the psychological context surrounding this link. We specifically focused on factors related to subjective experiences of aging based on studies that have related higher stress and impairments in cognition such as executive control processes (working memory) to negative age stereotypes. Consistent with these findings, we generally expected stronger stress effects on cognitive interference when daily self-perceptions of aging (i.e., within-person fluctuations in awareness of age-related losses [AARC losses]) and general aging attitudes (i.e., individual differences in attitudes toward own aging [ATOA]) were more negative. Methods Participants (n = 91; aged 60–80) on Amazon’s Mechanical Turk completed surveys on 9 consecutive days, reporting on their ATOA (Day 1) as well as their stressors, AARC losses, and cognitive interference (Days 2–9). Results Multilevel models showed that people reported more cognitive interference on days with more AARC losses. Individuals with positive ATOA also experienced less cognitive interference on days with more stressors, whereas those with negative ATOA experienced more. Discussion Both individual differences and fluctuating daily perceptions of aging appear to be important for older adults’ cognitive interference. Consistent with other work, positive ATOA protected against daily stressor effects. Further elucidating these relationships can increase understanding of and facilitate efforts to improve (daily) cognitive experiences in older adults.

Background Studies report benefits of physical exercise and cognitive training to enhance cognition in older adults. However, most studies did not compare these interventions to appropriate active controls. Moreover, physical exercise and cognitive training seem to involve different mechanisms of brain plasticity, suggesting a potential synergistic effect on cognition. Objective This study investigated the synergistic effect of cognitive training and aerobic/resistance physical exercise on dual-task performance in older adults. Intervention effects were compared to active controls for both the cognitive and the exercise domain. Method Eighty-seven older adults completed one of 4 different combinations of interventions, in which computer lessons was active control for cognitive training and stretching/toning exercise control for aerobic/resistance training: (a) cognitive dual-task training and aerobic/resistance training (COG+/AER+), (b) computer lessons and aerobic/resistance training (COG−/AER+), (c) cognitive dual-task training and stretching/toning exercises (COG+/AER−), and (d) computer lessons and stretching/toning exercises (COG−/AER−). The primary outcome was performance in an untrained transfer dual task. Stepwise backward removal regression analyses were used to predict pre- versus post-test changes in groups that have completed the dual-task training, aerobic/resistance or both interventions. Results Participation in AER+ did not predict improvement in any dual-task outcomes. Participation in COG+ predicted reduction in dual-task cost and participation in COG+/AER+ predicted reduction in task-set cost. Discussion Results suggest that the combination of cognitive and physical training protocols exerted a synergistic effect on task-set cost which reflects the cost of maintaining multiple response alternatives, whereas cognitive training specifically improved dual-task cost, which reflects the ability of synchronizing concurrent tasks.

Objective Social engagement (SE) may protect against cognitive decline in older adults. We estimate associations of SE with gray matter (GM) microstructure in regions of interest (ROI) relevant to social cognition, among community-dwelling older adults. Method Cross-sectional analysis of 293 Health ABC study participants who underwent 3 Tesla magnetic resonance imaging with diffusion tensor and free from cognitive impairment was conducted. Linear regression models tested associations between SE index (marital status, not living alone, social activities, work, and volunteering) and mean diffusivity (MD) of GM ROIs, adjusted for age, race, gender, and education. Hearing and activities of daily living (ADL) difficulties were tested as confounders. Effect modification by gender was tested with interaction terms and stratification by gender. Results Higher SE was significantly related to lower MD (greater GM microstructural integrity) (shown as standardized estimate [p-value]) in left middle frontal gyrus-orbital part: −.168 (.005), left caudate nucleus: −.141 (.02), left temporal pole-middle temporal gyrus: −.136 (.03), right middle frontal gyrus: −.160 (.006), right superior frontal gyrus-orbital part: −.187 (.002), and right middle frontal gyrus-orbital part: −.124 (.04), when adjusted for demographic attributes. Associations were robust to adjustments for hearing or ADL difficulty. There was significant effect modification by gender for some ROIs, with associations only for females. Discussion SE is related to greater microstructural integrity of specific GM regions relevant to social cognition, that have described roles in dementia. SE may therefore be a useful preventive mechanism against loss of GM integrity in older adults.

Objectives This study uses the life course perspective to explore the role of key midlife factors (occupation and number of children) for gender- and nativity-based pathways to cognitive aging for older Mexican Americans. Method Using the Hispanic Established Populations for the Epidemiologic Study of the Elderly (H-EPESE, 1993/1994–2016, n = 2,779), this study presents (a) cognitive impairment trajectories over 20 years of data and (b) multinomial logistic regression analyses of trajectory group membership by lifetime occupation and number of children, controlling for educational attainment. Results For older Mexican American men, lifetime employment in agricultural occupations is associated with elevated risk for late-life cognitive impairment. Delayed risk for impairment is observed for U.S.-born men who were employed in factory work (e.g., production and repair) and in Mexican-born men who were employed in occupations with skilled or supervisory requirements. For all women, labor force participation, especially in skilled occupations, is related to a delayed risk of cognitive impairment. Number of children is unrelated to impairment for men; however, women with five or more children (compared to women with two to four children) are at risk for consistent and rapid cognitive impairment in late life. Discussion Late-life cognitive health disparities that disproportionately impact the Mexican American population can be addressed by improving access to educational and occupational opportunities in early and midlife. This study points to key areas of intervention within work and the home for the Mexican-origin population.

Objectives Parents often provide advice to their adult children during their everyday interactions. This study investigated young adult children’s daily experiences with parental advice in U.S. families. Specifically, the study examined how receiving advice and evaluations of parental advice were associated with children’s life problems, parent–child relationship quality, and daily mood. Methods Young adult children (aged 18–30 years; participant N = 152) reported whether they received any advice and perceived any unwanted advice from each parent (parent N = 235) for 7 days using a daily diary design (participant-day N = 948). Adult children also reported their positive and negative mood on each interview day. Results Results from multilevel models revealed that adult children who reported a more positive relationship with their parents were more likely to receive advice from the parent, whereas adult children who had a more strained relationship with their parents were more likely to perceive advice from the parent as unwanted. Receiving advice from the mother was associated with increased positive mood, whereas unwanted advice from any parent was associated with increased negative mood. Furthermore, the link between unwanted advice and negative mood varied by children’s life problems and parent–child relationship quality. Discussion Indeed, parental advice is not “the more the better,” especially when the advice is unsolicited. This study highlights the importance of perceptions of family support for emerging adults’ well-being.

Objectives Personality traits have been related to concurrent memory performance. Most studies, however, have focused on personality as a predictor of memory; comparatively less is known about whether memory is related to personality development across adulthood. Using 4 samples, the present study tests whether memory level and change are related to personality change in adulthood. Method Participants were drawn from 2 waves of the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study Graduates (WLSG; N = 3,232, mean age = 64.28, SD = 0.65) and Wisconsin Longitudinal Study Siblings (WLSS; N = 1,570, mean age = 63.52, SD = 6.69) samples, the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS; N = 1,901, mean age = 55.43, SD = 10.98), and the Health and Retirement Study (HRS; N = 6,038, mean age = 65.47, SD = 8.28). Immediate and delayed recall and the 5 major personality traits were assessed at baseline and follow-up. Results There was heterogeneity in the associations across samples. A meta-analysis of latent change in the four samples indicated that lower baseline memory performance was related to an increase in neuroticism (B = −0.002; 95% CI = −0.004, −0.0008) and a decrease in agreeableness (B = 0.004; 95% CI = 0.002, 0.007) and conscientiousness (B = 0.005; 95% CI = 0.0008, 0.010). In addition, declines in memory were related to steeper declines in extraversion (B = 0.06; 95% CI = 0.003, 0.11), openness (B = 0.04; 95% CI = 0.007, 0.069), and conscientiousness (B = 0.05; 95% CI = 0.019, 0.09). Discussion The present study indicates that poor memory and declines in memory over time are related to maladaptive personality change. These associations, however, were small and inconsistent across samples.

Objectives Within-couple similarities in personality traits tend to be positively associated with relationship well-being. However, research in this area is typically based on cross-sectional designs, thereby limiting examination of longitudinal personality concordance. Given that life experiences shape within-person change in personality, and that partners within a couple often experience similar life events, investigation of within-couple personality synchrony and associations with marital outcomes is warranted. Methods Using data from 3,988 couples (mean age at baseline = 67.0 years, SD = 9.6), multilevel dyadic growth models estimated within-couple similarity in baseline levels, change, and occasion-to-occasion variability for each of the Big Five personality traits over an 8-year follow-up. Bivariate growth models examined the effect of within-couple similarity on perceived spousal support, accounting for dependency within couples. Results Adjusting for baseline age, education, functional ability, and relationship length, analyses revealed within-couple concordance between baseline levels of all 5 personality traits, as well as correlated within-couple fluctuations in neuroticism, extraversion, and openness over time. Similarity in openness, agreeableness, and neuroticism trajectories predicted spousal support. Couples were most similar in openness, showing correlated intercepts, change, and variability, and this longitudinal synchrony was particularly important for perceived spousal support in women. Discussion These findings provide evidence for longitudinal personality synchrony over time within older adult couples. Further, concordance in neuroticism, extraversion, and openness predicted perceived spousal support, though there may be some gender differences in personality dynamics and relationship well-being. Effects of similarity were relatively small compared to actor and partner effects of these traits.

Objectives Participating in a variety of daily activities (i.e., activity diversity) requires people to adjust to a variety of situations and engage in a greater diversity of behaviors. These experiences may, in turn, enhance cognitive functioning. This study examined associations between activity diversity and cognitive functioning across adulthood. Method Activity diversity was defined as the breadth and evenness of participation in seven common daily activity domains (e.g., paid work, time with children, leisure, physical activities, volunteering). Participants from the National Survey of Daily Experiences (NSDE: N = 732, Mage = 56) provided activity data during eight consecutive days at Wave 1 (W1) and Wave 2 (W2) 10 years apart. They also provided cognitive data at W2. Results Greater activity diversity at W2 was associated with higher overall cognitive functioning and higher executive functioning at W2. Individuals who increased activity diversity from W1 to W2 also exhibited higher scores in overall cognitive functioning and executive functioning at W2. Overall cognitive functioning, executive functioning, and episodic memory were better in those who had higher activity diversity at both waves, or increased activity diversity from W1 to W2, compared to those who had lower activity diversity or decreased activity diversity over time. Discussion Activity diversity is important for cognitive health in adulthood. Future work can study the directionality between activity diversity and cognitive functioning and underlying social and neurological mechanisms for these associations.

Objectives Poor physical function is associated with negative health and cognitive outcomes. Although nine studies demonstrated that cognitive training reduces age-related declines in physical function, only one study has examined the effects beyond immediate posttest changes. The first aim of this study was to assess the impact of three cognitive training programs on physical function measures across 10 years and the second aim was to examine whether baseline cognitive self-efficacy or depressive symptoms moderated training effects. Method Using data from the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly (ACTIVE) randomized controlled trial, older adults in a no-contact control condition (n = 698) were compared to those receiving processing speed (n = 702), memory (n = 703), or reasoning (n = 694) training. Intention-to-treat (ITT) and dosage analyses were conducted for grip strength and Turn 360. Participants were followed up to 10 years posttest. Results There were no significant ITT effects of processing speed, memory, or reasoning training assignment to any physical function outcome (p > .05). Dosage models indicated that there were small age-related attenuation effects in Turn 360 decline with more processing speed training (b = −.011, p < .001), memory training (b = −.011, p < .001), and reasoning training (b = −.012, p < .001). There was no significant transfer to grip strength. These training gains were greater for those with more baseline depressive symptoms who received more processing speed training (b = −.001, p < .001). Discussion This is the first study to demonstrate the effects of cognitive training to complex physical function across 10 years.

Objectives Although stronger social relationships have been associated with reduced mortality risk in prior research, their associations with favorable health outcomes are understudied. We evaluated whether higher social integration levels were associated with longer life span and greater likelihood of achieving exceptional longevity. Method Women from the Nurses’ Health Study completed the Berkman–Syme Social Network Index in 1992 (N = 72,322; average age = 58.80 years), and were followed through 2014 with biennial questionnaires. Deaths were ascertained from participants’ families, postal authorities, and death registries. Accelerated failure time models adjusting for relevant covariates estimated percent changes in life span associated with social integration levels; logistic regressions evaluated likelihood of surviving to age 85 years or older among women who could reach that age during follow-up (N = 16,818). Results After controlling for baseline demographics and chronic diseases, socially integrated versus isolated women had 10% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 8.80–11.42) longer life span and 41% (95% CI = 1.28–1.54) higher odds of surviving to age 85 years. All findings remained statistically significant after further adjusting for health behaviors and depression. Discussion Better social integration is related to longer life span and greater likelihood of achieving exceptional longevity among midlife women. Findings suggest social integration may be an important psychosocial asset to evaluate for promoting longer, healthier lives.

Objectives Metacomprehension monitoring accuracy in older age may be underestimated because of how it has been measured. Metacomprehension in the present study was uniquely measured by comparing summary quality to summary quality judgments. The effect of age on this accuracy was assessed and results were compared to those measured with the typical approach. The moderation of age effects by reading goal was also assessed but was an exploratory objective.1 Method Younger adults (141) and older adults (138) read and orally summarized six expository texts. Participants were randomly assigned to a reading goal condition, with half of each age group summarizing for a professor/boss and half summarizing for an acquaintance. Participants made judgments about the quality of their summaries before and after summarizing, took a multiple-choice test of their comprehension, and made judgments about the accuracy of their answers. Results Age deficits in metacomprehension were generally smaller when measured with the novel approach and age differences were generally larger for the professor/boss condition than for the acquaintance condition. Discussion The novel approach to measuring metacomprehension monitoring accuracy provides more optimism for aging than typical approaches, discussed in relation to age-related changes in language processing preferences.

Objectives Seminal research with spouses of chronic pain patients indicates that providing patients with instrumental support can be either costly or beneficial for spouses' well-being. Drawing from the invisible support literature, this study evaluated the extent to which patients' recognition of spouses' support moderated daily and long-term associations between spouses' support provision and negative affect. Method Data came from a sample of spouses (N = 145) of knee osteoarthritis (OA) patients, and the patients themselves. Participants completed a baseline interview, 22 days of daily diaries, and two follow-up interviews 6 and 18 months after baseline. Multilevel models were estimated to test study hypotheses. Results As expected, support visibility moderated daily and long-term associations between spouses' instrumental support provision and negative affect. Spouses reported elevated levels of negative affect in response to providing patients with extra care and attention, but only when their support was not recognized (i.e., reported) by patients. Discussion Findings from the current study pinpoint support visibility as a protective factor that may mitigate negative short- and long-term effects of spousal instrumental support provision on spouses' negative affect. Promoting patients' awareness of their spouses' support may offset negative emotional consequences of caregiving in the context of chronic health stressors.

Objectives Marital support is central to couples’ relationships, yet support’s health implications can vary widely. Guided by attribution bias and aging theories, the current study examined whether age and marital satisfaction moderate the links of perceived and received spousal support to aging-related biomarkers. Methods Couples (N = 93, ages 22–77) rated marital satisfaction, overall perceived spousal support, and the quality of support received from their spouse in a lab-based discussion. Blood samples collected at baseline, immediately post-discussion, 3 hr post-discussion, and end-of-visit were assayed for proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-6, as well as insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1. Results Consistent with predictions, less satisfied older couples who received lower-quality spousal support during their discussion had greater increases in TNF-α than those who received higher-quality support; highly satisfied couples of all ages and less satisfied younger couples did not show these inflammatory changes. Highly satisfied older couples with greater perceived spousal support had lower TNF-α across the day and higher IGF-1. Discussion Marital satisfaction and age may shape spousal support’s significance for healthy aging. Rose-colored lenses worn only in the most satisfying marriages may protect couples from the possible health risks of low-quality received support and enhance potential benefits of perceived support. For better or worse, these health implications may grow with older age.

Objectives Investigate the cross-sectional association between hearing loss (HL), hearing aid use, and depressive symptoms in community-dwelling older adults. Method The analytic sample consisted of 3,188 participants (age range 71–94 years) in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Neurocognitive Study (ARIC-NCS). Multivariable logistic regression was used to evaluate the association of audiometric hearing status and self-reported hearing aid use with depressive symptoms (11-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale). Results 4.6% of participants had depressive symptoms. Forty percent had mild HL and 27% had moderate or greater HL. In multivariable-adjusted models, mild HL was associated with 1.90 times higher odds (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.20–3.01) and moderate or greater HL with 2.42 times higher odds (95% CI 1.44–4.07) of depressive symptoms compared to normal hearing. Each 10dB increase in HL was associated with 1.30 higher odds of depressive symptoms (95% CI 1.14–1.49). Hearing aid use was not associated with depressive symptoms among those with mild (odds ratio [OR] 0.94, 95% CI 0.35–2.54) or moderate or greater (OR 1.12, 95% CI 0.60–2.11) HL. Discussion Older adults with HL have higher odds of depressive symptoms compared to adults with normal hearing. Future studies are needed to assess whether hearing care is protective against depressive symptoms in older adults.

ObjectivesThis article asks how the educational attainments of multiple family members, including parents and offspring, are associated with the cognitive health of older adults in the United States.MethodsWe use panel data from the U.S. Health and Retirement Study (2000–2012) to examine how the education of an individual, their parent(s), and their offspring are associated with the prevalence of moderate/severe cognitive impairment and the onset of cognitive impairment among older adults using logistic regression and discrete-time event history analysis, respectively.ResultsWe found that when combined, only the education of the individual is inversely associated with cognitive impairment at baseline. However, both the educational attainments of an individual and their offspring are negatively associated with the risk of becoming cognitively impaired, among individuals who were not already cognitively impaired. Conversely, parental education was not predictive of being cognitively impaired or the onset of impairment. Furthermore, we found that respondent gender did not moderate the relationship between a family member’s education and respondent cognitive health.DiscussionThis study adds to current research by asking how resources from earlier and subsequent generations matter for older adults’ cognitive health. Although we found little evidence that parental education matters at this life stage, results suggest that offspring education has a salient positive effect on later-life cognitive health. This finding underscores an overlooked source of health disparities—offspring resources—and highlights how a family perspective remains a powerful tool for understanding health inequalities in later life.

Objectives The main objective of this study was to determine whether there are age differences in positive and negative repetitive thought (ie, rumination). Method Young adults (ages 19–39; n = 114) and older adults (ages 60–85; n = 88) completed measures of negative and positive rumination. Bayesian analyses were used to determine whether age differences were present for both negative (young > old) and positive (old > young) rumination. Results There was extremely strong evidence for age differences in negative rumination, with lower scores in older adults. In contrast, the evidence was in favor of the null hypothesis for positive rumination. Discussion Age-related positivity is better characterized as decreased dwelling on the meaning of negative moods, rather than increased attention to positive ones.

Objectives Older adults with stronger social ties often lead longer, healthier, and happier lives, but these ties may differ based on older adults’ ability to share and understand others’ emotions (i.e., empathy). This study asked how empathy was associated with the way that older adults construct and engage in their social worlds. Method We drew on the Daily Experiences and Well-being Study to examine how older adults’ empathy was associated with the structure (e.g., network size and contact), function (e.g., support), and quality (e.g., affection and conflict) of their close social ties. Participants (N = 333) self-rated empathy and listed their social partners using three concentric convoy circles. Results Empathy was not associated with older adults’ social network structure, but more empathic older adults exchanged support with more social partners and reported greater affection for their social partners. We did not observe a significant link between older adults’ empathy and conflict with social partners. Discussion Examining empathy advances our understanding of individual differences in older adults’ close social ties. This study suggests that empathy may play a promising role with regard to promoting older adults’ social experiences and strengthening their close ties.

Objectives We examined the number of years to be lived with and without cognitive impairment and with high self-assessed quality of life (i.e., happiness) among a nationally representative sample of Americans aged 65 years and older. Two key questions are addressed: Can people have a high quality of life despite being cognitively impaired? Which is longer: happy life expectancy or cognitively intact life expectancy? Method Data from nine waves of the Health and Retirement Study (1998–2014) were used to estimate transition probabilities into and out of cognitively intact/impaired-un/happy states, as well as to death. Recently extended Bayesian multistate life table methods were used to estimate age-specific cognitively intact and happy life expectancy net of sex, race/ethnicity, education, and birth cohort. Results Happiness and cognitive impairment were shown to coexist in both the gross cross-tabulated data and in the life tables. Happy life expectancy is approximately 25% longer than cognitively intact life expectancy at age 65 years, and by age 85, happy life expectancy is roughly double cognitively intact life expectancy, on average. Discussion Lack of cognitive impairment is not a necessary condition for happiness. In other words, people can have a high quality of life despite being cognitively impaired.

Objective Investigate associations of early-life residence and school segregation with cognitive change in the Minority Aging Research Study. Methods Four hundred ninety-eight blacks (age ~ 73.5; 75% = women) without dementia at baseline self-reported State of birth, residence at age 12, and school segregation status. Census Bureau definitions of South and Northeast/Midwest were used to categorize early-life residence. We evaluated global cognition and five cognitive domains at baseline and annually for ~7.5 years. Linear mixed effects models examined the associations of region of birth and residence at age 12 with baseline level and longitudinal change in cognition. Additional models examined school segregation experience. Results ~65% of Southern-born participants still lived in the South at age 12. Southern birth was associated with lower baseline global cognition and all cognitive domains (p-values ≤ .02) compared to Northern birth, but not cognitive change. A similar profile was seen for Southern residence at age 12. Segregation experience significantly modified associations of residence at age 12 on levels of cognition. Participants residing in the South attending a legally desegregated school demonstrated lower baseline levels of cognition (global, semantic, and working memory) than their Northeast/Midwest counterparts attending a legally desegregated or segregated school as well as their Southern counterparts attending a legally segregated school. This profile for participants attending a desegregated school in the South held for processing speed and visuospatial ability in comparisons to Northeast/Midwest counterparts, particularly those attending a legally desegregated school. Conclusion Baseline cognition was poorer in individuals born and residing in the South, particularly those attending desegregated schools at age 12.

Objectives The prevalence of social media use in daily life is increasing; however, little is known about its cognitive costs and/or benefits. Social media use may help to offload memory to an external resource as well as to facilitate social relations, which could bolster or hinder everyday memory. Further, the relationship between social media use and memory may be moderated by age such that associations—whether positive or negative—could be exacerbated among older adults due to age-related declines. Methods Using an 8-day daily diary study from the Midlife in the United States Refresher cohort (n = 782, 25–75 years), multilevel models examined the impact of daily social media use, age, and their interaction on same-day and next-day memory failures. Results The concurrent model revealed that on days when social media use was high, individuals reported more memory failures. The lagged model further revealed that higher previous-day social media use was associated with more memory failures on the subsequent day, controlling for previous-day memory failures. These effects were not moderated by age. Post hoc analyses revealed no evidence of reverse-causation as previous-day memory failures did not predict next-day social media use. Conclusions Although past research has consistently shown that social engagement is a protective resource for memory, social media use may be a risk factor for memory failures for adults of any age. These findings highlight the growing importance of understanding the implications of social media use.

ObjectivesNumerous studies show benefits of mid- and late-life activity on neurocognitive health. Yet, few studies have examined how engagement in enriching activities during childhood, when the brain is most plastic, may confer long-term neurocognitive benefits that may be especially important to individuals raised in low-income settings. We examined associations between enriching early-life activities (EELAs) and hippocampal and amygdala volumes in a sample of predominantly African-American, community-dwelling older adults. We further assessed whether these associations were independent of current activity engagement.MethodsNinety participants from the baseline Brain Health Substudy of the Baltimore Experience Corps Trial (mean age: 67.4) completed retrospective activity inventories and an magnetic resonance imaging scan. Volumes were segmented using FreeSurfer.ResultsEach additional EELA was associated with a 2.3% (66.6 mm3) greater amygdala volume after adjusting for covariates. For men, each additional EELA was associated with a 4.1% (278.9 mm3) greater hippocampal volume. Associations were specific to these regions when compared with the thalamus, used as a control region.DiscussionEnriching lifestyle activities during an important window of childhood brain development may be a modifiable factor that impacts lifelong brain reserve, and results highlight the importance of providing access to such activities in historically underserved populations.

Objectives The present study aimed to characterize changes in verbal fluency performance across the lifespan using data from the Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging (CLSA). Methods We examined verbal fluency performance in a large sample of adults aged 45–85 (n = 12,686). Data are from the Tracking cohort of the CLSA. Participants completed a computer-assisted telephone interview that included an animal fluency task, in which they were asked to name as many animals as they could in 1 min. We employed a computational modeling approach to examine the factors driving performance on this task. Results We found that the sequence of items produced was best predicted by their semantic neighborhood, and that pairwise similarity accounted for most of the variance in participant analyses. Moreover, the total number of items produced declined slightly with age, and older participants produced items of higher frequency and denser semantic neighborhood than younger adults. Discussion These findings indicate subtle changes in the way people perform this task as they age. The use of computational models allowed for a large increase in the amount of variance accounted for in this data set over standard assessment types, providing important theoretical insights into the aging process.

Objectives We estimate life expectancy with and without dementia for Americans 65 years and older by education and race to examine how these stratification systems combine to shape disparities in later-life cognitive health. Method Based on the Health and Retirement Study (2000–2014), we use a multivariate, incidence-based life table approach to estimate life expectancy by cognitive health status for race–education groups. The models also simulate group differences in the prevalence of dementia implied by these rates. Results The life table results document notable race–education differences in dementia and dementia-free life expectancy, as well as stark differences in implied dementia prevalence. At each education level, blacks can expect to live more years with dementia and they have significantly higher rates of dementia prevalence. This distribution of disparities in the older population is anchored by 2 groups—blacks without a high school diploma and whites with some college or more. Discussion Dementia experience and dementia burden differ dramatically along race–education lines. Race and education combine to exaggerate disparities and they both have enduring effects. Future research should explicitly consider how race and education combine to influence dementia in the older American population.

Although it is generally accepted that stress is associated with poorer health and cognitive functioning, previous work has focused on what happens after stressors occur [...]. In this special section, we present a novel conceptual framework and initial empirical work that integrates the temporal space of anticipation before stressors occur. Understanding processes that may prevent exposure to or reduce the effects of stressors can have tremendous benefits for longevity and successful aging. In this overview, we describe our conceptual framework and relevant aging theories that form the foundation for our predictions across studies. We also briefly introduce the data sets and study designs and propose preliminary implications. (DIPF/Orig.)

Objectives The consequences of poor financial capability at older ages are serious and include making mistakes with credit, spending retirement assets too quickly, and being defrauded by financial predators. Because older persons are at or past the peak of their wealth accumulation, they are often the targets of fraud. Methods Our project analyzes a module we developed and fielded on people aged 50 an older years in the 2016 Health and Retirement Study (HRS). Using this data set, we evaluated the incidence and prospective risk factors (measured in 2010) for investment fraud and prize/lottery fraud using logistic regression (N = 1,220). Results Relatively few HRS respondents mentioned any single form of fraud over the prior 5 years, but 5.0% reported at least one form of investment fraud and 4.4% recounted prize/lottery fraud. Greater wealth (nonhousing) was associated with investment fraud, whereas lower housing wealth and symptoms of depression were associated with prize/lottery fraud. Hispanics were significantly less likely to report either type of fraud. Other suspected risk factors—low social integration and financial literacy—were not significant. Discussion Fraud is a complex phenomenon and no single factor uniquely predicts victimization across different types, even within the category of investment fraud. Prevention programs should educate consumers about various types of fraud and increase awareness among financial services professionals.

Background Substantial research is dedicated to understanding the aging-related dynamics among individual differences in level, change, and variation across physical and cognitive abilities. Evaluating replicability and synthesizing findings has been limited by differences in measurements, samples, study design, and statistical analyses that confound between-person differences with within-person changes. Here, we systematically reviewed longitudinal results on the aging-related dynamics linking pulmonary function and cognitive performance. Methods Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses guidelines were used to systematically review longitudinal studies of pulmonary function and cognition. Results Only four studies thoroughly investigating cognitive and pulmonary longitudinal associations (three or more measurement occasions) were identified. Expanded review criteria identified three studies reporting two measurement occasions, and seven studies reporting one measurement of pulmonary function or cognition and two or more measurements of the other. We identified numerous methodological quality and risk for bias issues across studies. Conclusions Despite documented correlational associations between pulmonary function and cognition, these results show there is very limited research thoroughly investigating their longitudinal associations. This highlights the need for longitudinal data, rigorous methodological design including key covariates, and clear communication of methods and analyses to facilitate replication across an array of samples. We recommend systematic study of outcome measures and covariates, inclusion of multiple measures (e.g., peak expiratory flow, forced expiratory volume in 1 s, and forced vital capacity), as well as application of the same analytic approach across multiple datasets.

Objective The present study tests whether loneliness is associated with risk of dementia in the largest sample to date and further examines whether the association is independent of social isolation, a related but independent component of social integration, and whether it varies by demographic factors and genetic vulnerability. Method Participants from the Health and Retirement Study (N = 12,030) reported on their loneliness, social isolation, and had information on clinical, behavioral, and genetic risk factors. Cognitive status was assessed at baseline and every 2 years over a 10-year follow-up with the modified Telephone Interview for Cognitive Status (TICSm). A TICSm score of 6 or less was indicative of dementia. Results Cox proportional hazards regression indicated that loneliness was associated with a 40% increased risk of dementia. This association held controlling for social isolation, and clinical, behavioral, and genetic risk factors. The association was similar across gender, race, ethnicity, education, and genetic risk. Discussion Loneliness is associated with increased risk of dementia. It is one modifiable factor that can be intervened on to reduce dementia risk.

Objective Control beliefs are established correlates of cognitive aging. Despite recent demonstrations that response time inconsistency (RTI) represents a proxy for cognitive processing efficiency, few investigations have explored links between RTI and psychosocial correlates. We examined associations among RTI and control beliefs (perceived competence and locus of control) for two choice-response time (RT) tasks varying in their attentional demands. Method Control beliefs and RTI were measured weekly for 5 weeks in a sample of 304 community-dwelling older adults (Mage = 74.11 years, SD = 6.05, range = 64–92, 68.58% female). Results Multilevel models revealed that for the attentionally demanding task, reporting higher perceived competence than usual was associated with lower RTI for relatively younger participants and greater RTI for relatively older participants. For the less attentionally demanding task, reporting higher perceived competence than usual was associated with lower RTI for relatively older participants. Links between locus of control and RTI were comparatively scant. Discussion Our findings suggest that control beliefs may have adaptive and maladaptive influences on RTI, depending on dimension of control beliefs, individual differences in level of control beliefs and age, as well as attentional task demands. Both for whom and when control beliefs can be leveraged to optimize cognitive aging are discussed.

Objective Older adults evaluate faces as being more trustworthy than do younger adults. The present work examined whether aging is associated with changes in the dynamic activation of trustworthiness categories toward faces, and if category activation relates to enhanced trust. Method Younger and older adults categorized faces as trustworthy or untrustworthy while computer mouse trajectories were recorded to measure dynamic category activation. Results Older, but not younger, adults had more dynamic category activation (i.e., trustworthy and untrustworthy) when they viewed untrustworthy versus trustworthy faces. This tendency predicted a bias (pronounced with age) toward evaluating faces as being trustworthy. Discussion A pronounced trust bias in aging may be related to greater dynamic activation of trustworthiness (vs untrustworthiness) when perceiving faces.

Objectives The early environment is thought to be a critical period in understanding the cognitive health disparities African Americans face today. Much is known about the positive role enriching environments have in mid- and late-life and the negative function adverse experiences have in childhood; however, little is known about the relationship between enriching childhood experiences and late-life cognition. The current study examines the link between a variety of enriching early-life activities and late-life cognitive functioning in a sample of sociodemographic at-risk older adults. Method This study used data from African Americans from the Brain and Health Substudy of the Baltimore Experience Corps Trial (M = 67.2, SD = 5.9; N = 93). Participants completed a battery of neuropsychological assessments and a seven-item retrospective inventory of enriching activities before age 13. Results Findings revealed that a greater enriching early-life activity score was linked to favorable outcomes in educational attainment, processing speed, and executive functioning. Discussion Results provide promising evidence that enriching early environments are associated with late-life educational and cognitive outcomes. Findings support the cognitive reserve and engagement frameworks, and have implications to extend life-span prevention approaches when tackling age-related cognitive declines, diseases, and health disparities.

Objectives Genetic risks for cognitive decline are not modifiable; however their relative importance compared to modifiable factors is unclear. We used machine learning to evaluate modifiable and genetic risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease (AD), to predict cognitive decline. Methods Health and Retirement Study participants, aged 65–90 years, with DNA and >2 cognitive evaluations, were included (n = 7,142). Predictors included age, body mass index, gender, education, APOE ε4, cardiovascular, hypertension, diabetes, stroke, neighborhood socioeconomic status (NSES), and AD risk genes. Latent class trajectory analyses of cognitive scores determined the form and number of classes. Random Forests (RF) classification investigated predictors of cognitive trajectories. Performance metrics (accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity) were reported. Results Three classes were identified. Discriminating highest from lowest classes produced the best RF performance: accuracy = 78% (1.0%), sensitivity = 75% (1.0%), and specificity = 81% (1.0%). Top ranked predictors were education, age, gender, stroke, NSES, and diabetes, APOE ε4 carrier status, and body mass index (BMI). When discriminating high from medium classes, top predictors were education, age, gender, stroke, diabetes, NSES, and BMI. When discriminating medium from the low classes, education, NSES, age, diabetes, and stroke were top predictors. Discussion The combination of latent trajectories and RF classification techniques suggested that nongenetic factors contribute more to cognitive decline than genetic factors. Education was the most relevant predictor for discrimination.

Objectives As people get older, they show a relative preference to remember positive information over negative information. In two experiments, we tested whether the positivity of older adults' memory is affected by stereotype threat about age-related cognitive declines. We also tested whether highlighting a positive aging stereotype (older adults are wise) would inoculate older adults from stereotype threat's adverse effects. Method In Experiments 1 and 2, we manipulated whether stereotypes about age-related cognitive decline were highlighted (stereotype threat) or mitigated (stereotype alleviation). In Experiment 2, we included a third condition (intervention + stereotype threat), which highlighted positive and negative aging stereotypes. Participants then saw emotionally evocative pictures and completed a memory test. Results In both experiments, stereotype threat selectively reduced older adults' memory for positive pictures but did not affect their memory for negative pictures. This eliminated the positivity effect (i.e., the Age × Valence interaction; Experiment 1). Our positive stereotype intervention did not reduce stereotype threat's adverse effect (Experiment 2). Discussion Our findings show that the positivity effect is more robust when testing situations minimize stereotype threat. They also suggest that health interventions designed to capitalize on the positivity effect should ensure that ageist stereotypes are mitigated in the environment.

Objective The current analysis examines sex differences in longitudinal changes in genetic and environmental influences on three measures of subjective health (SH). Method Sample includes 7,372 twins (mean intake age = 73.22) with up to 8 waves of measurement (mean = 3.1). Three SH items were included: general self-rated health (SRH), health compared to age peers (COMP), and impact of health on activities (ACT) which previous research shows capture different frames of reference. Results Latent growth curve modeling indicated significant differences across gender and frame of reference in trajectories of change with age and in genetic and environmental contributions to change. Men have higher mean scores on all three SH measures, indicating better SH, but there were no sex differences in pattern of change with age. Accelerating declines with age were found for SRH and ACT, whereas COMP improved with age. Results indicated more genetic variance for women than men, but declining genetic variance for both after age 70. Increasing shared environmental variance with increasing age was also found for both sexes. Discussion As aging triggers a re-evaluation of the meaning of “good health,” physical aspects of health may become less important and shared cultural conceptions of health may become more relevant. This change in conceptions of good health may reflect both aging and the change in composition of the elderly population as a result of selective survival.

Objectives Purpose in life (PIL), a feeling of meaning and direction in life, is associated with favorable health outcomes including lower mortality and reduced risk of disease, disability, and cognitive impairment. Since centenarian offspring have been shown to have long health spans we sought to examine whether they have higher PIL than individuals without familial longevity. Method We compared PIL scores from the Ryff Scales of Psychological Well-Being in centenarian offspring from the New England Centenarian Study (N = 361, mean age = 82.0 years) with 3 referent groups: spouses, birth cohort-matched referents, and Health and Retirement Study (HRS) participants. Results Logistic regression analyses adjusted for age, sex, education, and marital status indicated greater odds of high PIL among centenarian offspring compared with spouse (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 1.92, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.002–3.68, p = .049) and birth cohort referents (aOR = 2.64, 95% CI = 1.36–5.14, p = .004). Offspring had an almost 3 times greater odds of having high PIL than HRS participants (odds ratio [OR] = 2.93, 95% CI = 2.17–3.96, p < .0001). Discussion Higher PIL is associated with being an offspring of a long-lived parent and may play a role in the ability to delay age-associated illnesses and functional decline. Increasing purposefulness may be a target for interventions to promote healthy aging.

ObjectivesAlthough personality change is typically considered a symptom of dementia, some studies suggest that personality change may be an early indication of dementia. One prospective study found increases in neuroticism preceding dementia diagnosis (Yoneda, T., Rush, J., Berg, A. I., Johansson, B., & Piccinin, A. M. (2017). Trajectories of personality traits preceding dementia diagnosis. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 72, 922–931. doi:10.1093/geronb/gbw006). This study extends this research by examining trajectories of personality traits in additional longitudinal studies of aging.MethodsThree independent series of latent growth curve models were fitted to data from the Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam and Einstein Aging Study to estimate trajectories of personality traits in individuals with incident dementia diagnosis (total N = 210), in individuals with incident Mild Cognitive Impairment (N = 135), and in individuals who did not receive a diagnosis during follow-up periods (total N = 1740).ResultsControlling for sex, age, education, depressive symptoms, and the interaction between age and education, growth curve analyses consistently revealed significant linear increases in neuroticism preceding dementia diagnosis in both datasets and in individuals with mild cognitive impairment. Analyses examining individuals without a diagnosis revealed nonsignificant change in neuroticism overtime.DiscussionReplication of our previous work in 2 additional datasets provides compelling evidence that increases in neuroticism may be early indication of dementia, which can facilitate development of screening assessments.