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Abstract Deep crustal and mantle rocks are exhumed in core complex mode of extension in three types of structures: metamorphic core complexes, oceanic core complexes and magma poor passive margins. Using available analogue and numerical models and their comparison with natural examples, the present paper reviews the mechanical processes involved in these different types of extensional setting. Three main aspects are considered: i) the primary role of lithosphere rheology, ii) the lithosphere-scale patterns of progressive deformation that lead to the exhumation of deep metamorphic or mantle rocks and iii) the initiation and development of detachment zones. Crustal core complexes develop in continental lithospheres whose Moho temperature is higher than 750 °C with "upper crust-dominated" strength profiles. Contrary to what is commonly believed, it is argued from analogue and numerical models that detachments that accommodate exhumation of core complexes do not initiate at the onset of extension but in the course of progressive extension when the exhuming ductile crust reaches the surface. In models, convex upward detachments result from a rolling hinge process. Mantle core complexes develop in either the oceanic lithosphere, at slow and ultra-slow spreading ridges, or in continental lithospheres, whose initial Moho temperature is lower than 750 °C, with "sub-Moho mantle-dominated" strength profiles. It is argued that the mechanism of mantle exhumation at passive margins is a nearly symmetrical necking process at lithosphere scale without major and permanent detachment, except if strong strain localization could occur in the lithosphere mantle. Distributed crustal extension, by upper crust faulting above a décollement along the ductile crust increases toward the rift axis up to crustal breakup. Mantle rocks exhume in the zone of crustal breakup accommodated by conjugate mantle shear zones that migrate with the rift axis, during increasing extension. Highlights • Review of the mechanisms of crust and mantle exhumation in core complex-type extension. • Analogue and numerical modeling support the rolling hinge process for core complex development. • Large-scale detachments do not form at the onset of deformation but during progressive extension. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary The Tyrrhenian basin opened in the Neogene following the E–SE retreat of the Appenines–Calabrian subduction system and the subsequent back-arc extension of an orogenic crust. The resultant crustal structure includes a complex distribution of continental, back-arc magmatism, and mantle-exhumation domains. A clear example of this complex structure is found in the central and deepest part of the basin (i.e. Magnaghi–Vavilov sub-basin) where geophysical data supported that the bulk of the basement is composed of partially serpentinised peridotite representing exhumed mantle rocks, and intruded by basalts forming low ridges and volcanic edifices. However, those data sets cannot univocally demonstrate the widespread presence of serpentinised mantle rocks, let alone the percentage of serpentinisation. Here, we use S-wave arrivals and available geological information to further constrain the presence of mantle serpentinisation. Travel times of converted S-waves were used to derive the overall Vp/Vs and Poisson's ratio (σ), as well as S-wave velocity of the basement in the Magnaghi-Vavilov Basins. This analysis reveals Vp/Vs ≈ 1.9 (σ ≈ 0.3) that strongly supports a serpentinised peridotite forming the basement under the basins, rather than oceanic-type gabbro/diabase. P-wave velocity models is later used to quantify the amount of serpentinisation from fully serpentinised (up to 100%) at the top of the basement to < 10% at 5–7 km deep, with a depth distribution similar to continent–ocean Transition zones at magma-poor rifted margins. Seismic reflection profiles show normal faulting at either flank of the Magnaghi–Vavilov Basin that is potentially responsible for the onset of serpentinisation and later mantle exhumation. These results, together with basement sampling information in the area, suggests that the late stage of mantle exhumation was accompanied or soon followed by the emplacement of MOR-type basalts forming low ridges that preceded intraplate volcanism responsible for the formation of large volcanoes in the area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A kinematic model of lithosphere and asthenosphere deformation has been used to investigate lithosphere stretching and thinning modes during continental rifting leading to breakup and seafloor spreading. The model has been applied to two conjugate profiles across the Iberia–Newfoundland rifted margins and quantitatively calibrated using observed present-day water loaded subsidence and crustal thickness, together with observed mantle exhumation, subsidence and melting generation histories. The kinematic model uses an evolving prescribed flow-field to deform the lithosphere and asthenosphere leading to lithospheric breakup from which continental crustal thinning, lithosphere thermal evolution, decompression melt initiation and subsidence are predicted. We explore the sensitivity of model predictions to extension rate history, deformation migration and buoyancy induced upwelling. The best fit calibrated models of lithosphere deformation evolution for the Iberia–Newfoundland conjugate margins require; (1) an initial broad region of lithosphere deformation with passive upwelling, (2) lateral migration of deformation, (3) an increase in extension rate with time, (4) focussing of the deformation and (5) buoyancy induced upwelling. The model prediction of exhumed mantle at the Iberia–Newfoundland margins, as observed, requires a critical threshold of melting to be exceeded before melt extraction. The preferred calibrated models predict faster extension rates and earlier continental crustal separation and mantle exhumation for the Iberia Abyssal Plain–Flemish Pass conjugate margin profile than for the Galicia Bank–Flemish Cap profile to the north. The predicted N–S differences in the deformation evolution give insights into the 3D evolution of Iberia–Newfoundland margin crustal separation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: We study the evolution of the Eocene–Recent Phu Khanh Basin opened during the rifting of the South China Sea (SCS). This sub-basin formed when continental crust ruptured along the East-Vietnam Boundary Fault (EVBF) at the western edge of the SCS. Using high quality long-streamer seismic lines we interpret structures that highlight the different phases of the SCS rifting and processes related to crustal boudinage. Extreme crustal thinning and mantle uplift that sometimes places sediments in contact with the Moho discontinuity mark the central part of the basin. The mantle is shallowest there and marks the final rupture of the continental crust during an intense phase of mantle upwelling. There, a low-angle detachment fault separates several crustal blocks from the Moho. The cylindrical axis of the Moho rise is roughly parallel to the trend of the South China Sea propagator. Above the mantle, the upper and lower crusts form large crustal boudins. The network of normal faults is dense in the upper crust and occasionally propagates into the lower crust. However, the lower crust is missing at some places. The seismic facies above the Moho rise is poorly stratified and might have been affected by a certain degree of metamorphism. At the apex of mantle uplift, there are frequent indications of fluid circulations, including volcanic edifices and gas escapes features. Three stages of extension are clearly identifiable, with ages of the two youngest constrained by well calibration: the first and oldest rift sequence is situated between the tilted pre-rift basement and the Oligocene horizons (32Ma); the second is delimited by the Oligocene to the Mid Miocene (15.5Ma) horizons, and the third is bound by the Mid Miocene and the Upper Miocene (before 10.5Ma) horizons. These three rift episodes formed in at least two extension directions, the first N–S and the second NW–SE. The distinct Mid Miocene (15.5Ma) horizon is tilted and the above layers show a diverging reflection. These are in turn sealed by an erosional unconformity before 10.5Ma. Although tectonic activity appears diachronous from north to south, we suggest that cessation of rifting did not occur before 12–10.5Ma. This differs from models derived from magnetic anomalies observed in the South China Sea (15.5 to 20Ma). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The Valaisan units, in the Alps, sample remnants of a Mesozoic basin located along the distal margin of the European plate. The extent and timing of crustal thinning and the presence/absence of rift-related magmatism in this basin have been investigated in the newly defined Punta Rossa unit, at the Petit St. Bernard pass (Western Alps). The Punta Rossa unit consists of laterally discontinuous slivers of Paleozoic basement, rare meta-pillow lavas and abundant metasedimentary breccias. These rock types are located along the multiply folded interface between serpentinized ultramafics and radiolaria-bearing garnet–chloritoid micaschists. Fault breccias pre-dating Alpine metamorphism are common at the top of the ultramafics and throughout the continental basement slivers, but they are absent in all other lithologies. These observations suggest that subcontinental mantle and Paleozoic basement were juxtaposed by brittle faulting before the overlying sediments were deposited. Rift-related thinning was probably accompanied by minor mafic magmatism, as indicated by pillow lavas directly in contact with garnet–chloritoid micaschists. The Punta Rossa unit preserves evidence of a multi-stage Alpine evolution. Post-high pressure isoclinal folding (Fctd) is associated with a pervasive axial planar cleavage (Sctd), defined by chloritoid and white mica. Following re-heating to ~400°C, Sctd was statically overgrown by garnet and chloritoid, prior to large-scale recumbent folding at greenschist facies conditions (Frec). Interference between Fctd and Frec is responsible for the regional occurrence of basement rocks resting upon Mesozoic metasediments. Following Frec, shear zones with top-to-the-south kinematics dissected the tectonic pile, prior to the formation of upright folds with NNE–SSW trending fold axes. Therefore, the Punta Rossa unit preserves evidence of complete crustal excision in the Valaisan basin, with exhumation of ultramafics and minor mafic magmatism. Multi-stage deformation and a laterally discontinuous pre-Alpine architecture, typical of hyper extended rifted margins, are responsible for the complex outcrop pattern observed in the field. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The outer Vøring Basin, Norwegian Sea, is an abnormally deep and distal part of the Norwegian passive margin, known as "magma-rich". Yet, the lastest borehole drilled in its northernmost part led to a drastic change in the interpretation of seismic reflection data. This update motivates a new model for the entire Mesozoic-Eocene rifting period. Here I evaluate the link between tectonics, serpentinization and magmatism in the Norwegian margin from the Ryazanian-Valanginian to the Palaeocene-Eocene magmatic breakup. Maps of the regional Nise sandstones and main regional unconformities specifically highlight the fundamental role of the Nyk-Vema Structure to understand the basin and to question the deformation timing related to deep structures. The top of partially serpentinized mantle is supported by high-amplitude reflectors clearly visible on certain seismic lines, known as "T-Reflector", covered with gravity-driven pre-exhumation sediments and further deposits. A new structural scheme based on the interpretation of 2D and 3D seismic data shows the complex organization of fault networks and constrains a major deformation period between the Late Campanian and the Late Palaeocene. Ocean-scale complementary arguments are in good agreement with Lower-Cretaceous mantle exhumation. Before becoming a volcanic margin in the Palaeocene, this segment of the Norwegian margin appears as amagmatic until the Late Campanian, at least. I propose an integrated model since the onset of hyperextension in the end of the Jurassic until the cessation of activity of the Aegir Ridge in the Miocene. This model has implications regarding the context-dependent interpretation of lower-crustal bodies, the ubiquity of serpentinization and mantle exhumation worldwide, and on the hydrocarbon system. Unlabelled Image • Before becoming a volcanic margin in the Palaeocene, this segment of the Norwegian margin appears as amagmatic until the Late Campanian, at least; • Mantle exhumation occurred in the outer Vøring Basin during the Cretaceous and crustal lineaments likely reveal lithospheric-scale fracturing; • The magmatic breakup is shifted > 100 km from the continental breakup; • So-called "lower crustal bodies" are interpreted differently in magma-poor and magma-rich margins although they have similar properties; • Serpentinization is likely to reach the brittle-ductile transition, as observed for subduction-related bending faults or ultra-slow spreading ridges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]