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This work reports the development of an automatic methodology based on the use of 1-anilinonaphthalene-8-sulfonate (ANS) as an interfacial fluorescent probe for detecting the hydrophobic environment shift around the probe, caused by the hydrolytic action of PLA(2) on the liposomes. The implementation of this reaction in a sequential injection analysis (SIA) system along with the use of the mixing chambers permitted the evaluation of PLA(2) activity and assessment of the inhibitory effect of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) on PLA(2) activity. Several studies were performed with the aim of establishing the appropriate flow system configuration: the liposome substrate; PLA(2) and ANS optimum concentrations and incubation times before and after the enzyme addition. Based on these studies, the optimum reaction conditions were selected. It was shown that PLA(2) is effectively inhibited by the NSAIDs tested (meloxicam, tolmetin and ibuprofen) and by the alpha-lipoic acid, used as a positive control. Results obtained from the flow system are in agreement with those provided by the comparison batch procedures. The proposed methodology is in fact more efficient and rapid than the comparison batch experiments, enabling the exact timing of fluidic manipulations and precise control of the reaction conditions.

Redox reactions are the heart of numerous biochemical pathways found in cellular chemistry, generating reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS), that includes superoxide anion radical (O2-), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), hydroxyl radical (HO), singlet oxygen ((1)O2), hypochlorite anion (OCl-), peroxynitrite anion (ONOO-) and nitric oxide radical (NO). The measurement of scavenging capacity against these reactive species presents new challenges, which can be met by flow injection analysis (FIA). In the present review several methods based on FIA and also on its predecessors computer-controlled techniques (sequential injection analysis, multisyringe flow injection analysis, multicommutated and multipumping flow systems) are critically discussed. The selectivity and applicability of the methodology, the generation and detection of the target reactive species, the benefits and limitations of automation when compared to batch methods are some of the issues addressed.

The role and importance of antioxidants in different fields, ranging from physiology to food technology, have become evident in the past years, requiring adequate analytical methodologies. Therefore, the determination of antioxidant capacity as a routine or screening analysis fosters its automation. In this context, several flow injection methods based on scavenging of 2,2'-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonate) radical cation (ABTS(+)) or 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical (DDPH) or based on the determination of total reducing capacity have been proposed. The objective of the present review is to critically compare the different approaches, regarding their degree of automation, their performance vs. the respective batch procedure and its applicability to real samples.

Abstract: The determination of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and the evaluation of scavenging capacity against this species were performed using five colorimetric reactions, which were adapted to flow injection analysis. The reactions chosen were based on the oxidation of iodide (I− method), on the formation of titanium-peroxide complex (TiP method), on the formation of titanium-xylenol orange-peroxide complex (TiXoP method), on the oxidation of 3,3′,5,5′-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB method) and on the co-oxidation of phenol-4-sulfonic acid and 4-aminoantipyrine (PSA/4-AAP method). The operational conditions were studied in order to improve the sensitivity of each method. Concerning to the method sensitivity, the ranking order was TMB method>I− method>TiXoP method ∼PSA/4-AAP method>TiP method. All methods showed an excellent repeatability (RSD<2%) and, except for I− method, relative deviations from the reference method were <1.9%. The FIA manifolds were adapted to perform the determination of scavenging capacity against H2O2 and glutathione (GSH) was applied as model compound. TiP and TiXoP methods were not suitable as no inhibition or an increase of analytical signal was attained. PSA/4-AAP method was chosen for further application to dietary phenolics and pharmaceutical compounds, providing IC50 values for those compounds that are fast reacting antioxidants. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

An automated oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) method based on programmable flow injection analysis was developed for the assessment of antioxidant reactivity. The method relies on real time spectrophotometric monitoring (540 nm) of pyrogallol red (PGR) bleaching mediated by peroxyl radicals in the presence of antioxidant compounds within the first minute of reaction, providing information about their initial reactivity against this type of radicals. The ORAC-PGR assay under programmable flow format affords a strict control of reaction conditions namely reagent mixing, temperature and reaction timing, which are critical parameters for in situ generation of peroxyl radical from 2,2′-azobis(2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride (AAPH). The influence of reagent concentrations and programmable flow conditions on reaction development was studied, with application of 37.5 µM of PGR and 125 mM of AAPH in the flow cell, guaranteeing first order kinetics towards peroxyl radicals and pseudo-zero order towards PGR. Peroxyl-scavenging reactivity of antioxidants, bioactive compounds and phenolic-rich beverages was estimated employing the proposed methodology. Recovery assays using synthetic saliva provided values of 90±5% for reduced glutathione. Detection limit calculated using the standard antioxidant compound Trolox was 8 μM. RSD values were <3.4 and <4.9%, for intra and inter-assay precision, respectively. Compared to previous batch automated ORAC assays, the developed system also accounted for high sampling frequency (29 h −1 ), low operating costs and low generation of waste. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A low-pressure liquid chromatography system for the on-line quantification of caffeine loaded into lipid nanoparticles that permeates pig skin was developed. The apparatus includes a Franz diffusion cell with computer-controlled sampling that allows collection of acceptor solution with automatic compensation for sample withdrawing, and a C-18 reversed-phase monolithic column integrated in a typical Flow Injection Analysis (FIA) set-up where separation between caffeine and other matrix elements is performed before spectrophotometric quantification at 273 nm. Several parameters regarding chromatographic analysis (propulsion element, column length, mobile phase composition, and flow rate) were studied along with the establishment of the sampling procedure. Under the selected conditions (monolithic column Chromolith® RP-18 15 mm×4.6 mm i.d., acetonitrile:water 10:90 (v/v), flow rate 0.45 mL min −1 ) a detection limit of 4 μM and RSD values for caffeine concentration <2% were achieved. High recovery values were obtained when Hepes buffer incubated as acceptor solution in presence of pig skin for 8 h was spiked with caffeine (103±5%). The developed system also accounts for low organic solvent consumption, low operating costs, low generation of waste and high sample throughput (24 h −1 ). Due to the real time automated sampling and high throughput, transdermal permeation profiles of nanoformulations can be established within a time frame seldom observed by conventional techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In the present work, an automatic method based on multisyringe flow injection analysis (MSFIA) was developed for determination of scavenging capacity against H2O2 using a non-enzymatic fluorimetric assay for H2O2 detection based on the formation of europium-tetracycline-H2O2 complex. The MSFIA-fluorimetric methodology was developed to perform in-line the scavenging reaction of H2O2 prior to reaction of the remaining H2O2 with the fluorescent probe, using conditions close to those found in vivo regarding pH (6.9), temperature (37°C) and H2O2 concentration (25μM). This approach allowed the evaluation of scavenging capacity against H2O2 in a non-competitive (antioxidant+H2O2) or a competitive (antioxidant+H2O2 +biological target) scheme. Using the first strategy, IC50 values determined for the antioxidant compounds glutathione reduced (1191±46μM) and pyruvate (446±49μM) were lower than those obtained for biological targets such as cysteine (2616±182μM), taurine (359±38mM) and adenine (2224±214μM), indicating that reactivity towards H2O2 was higher for antioxidant compounds than for biological targets. However, when a competitive scheme was applied, the scavenging effectiveness against H2O2 depended on the biological molecule present, showing that antioxidant assessment should also take into consideration the concomitant reactivity of biological molecules or structures that are prone to oxidative damage. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]