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The presence of carcinogenic aflatoxins in food and feed products is a major worldwide problem. To date, the aflatoxin contamination can only be detected by the use of destructive sample-based chemical analyses. Therefore, we developed an optical setup able to detect the localized aflatoxin contamination in individual maize kernels, on the basis of one-and two-photon induced fluorescence spectroscopy. Our developed optical configuration comprises a tunable titanium-sapphire laser (710nm-830nm) in combination with second harmonic wavelength generation (355nm-415nm), enabling the measurement of both one-and two-photon induced fluorescence spectra. Moreover, an accurate scanning of the kernel's surface was induced by the use of automated translation stages, allowing to study the localized maize contamination. First, the operation of the setup is validated by the characterization of pure aflatoxin B1 powder. Second, the fluorescence spectra of healthy (< 1ppb aflatoxin B1) and contaminated maize kernels (> 70ppb aflatoxin B1) were measured, after excitation with 365nm, 730nm, 750nm and 780nm. For both the one-and two-photon induced fluorescence processes, the presence of the aflatoxin inside the contaminated maize kernels influenced the intrinsic fluorescence signals. Based on the fluorescence spectrum between 400nm and 550nm, we defined a detection criterion to identify the contaminated maize kernels. Furthermore, we demonstrate the sensing of the localized contamination level, indicating both contaminated maize kernels with a high contamination level in a limited surface area (as small as 1mm(2)) as with a lower contamination spread over a large surface area (up to 20mm(2)). As a result, our developed measurement methodology allows the identification of the localized aflatoxin contamination, paving the way to the non-destructive, real-time and high-sensitive industrial scanning-based detection of aflatoxins in food products.

Raman spectroscopy is presented as a suitable and fast non-destructive technique to obtain qualitative information about glass samples of various origins (ancient and modern/industrial glass). A first application is the broad corpus of archaeological window glass that still needs to be investigated. For many sites, archaeologists have to deal with large collections of excavated glass samples and a selection of the most appropriate samples for chemical analysis is necessary. A fast classification can be made based on Raman spectra: different kind of glasses (Alkali-glass, High Lime-Low Alkali glass (HLLA)) have their own typical Raman signature. Even for glasses giving strong fluorescence, a classification is possible after a simple treatment of the Raman data. Raman spectroscopy has also been utilized to identify iron containing glasses. The effect of the iron content in glass samples is reflected on the topology of the Raman spectra: a strong link between the ratio of the Q2/Q3 vibration units of the silica tetrahedral structure is seen. Even (semi-) quantitative results can be determined from calibration lines if matrix effects are taken into account (similar glasses). In amber colored glasses, an extra peak ~415cm-1 in the Raman spectra indicates the presence of a Fe-S chromophore. Finally, in the fluorescent signals of some yellow and red glasses two peaks of Zn-Se-Cd-S nanocrystals have been identified.

Absorption spectroscopy is the technique that measures the absorption of radiation as a function of wavelength, due to its interaction with the material. During a research project funded by our home university, we were able to investigate the possibilities of this technique to study ancient glasses. One of our main conclusions is that UV-VIS-NIR absorption spectroscopy is especially suited to characterize colored artifacts in terms of composition and furnace conditions. Moreover, for naturally colored window glasses, we have shown that this technique allows us to classify fragments based on differences in iron impurity levels. It is a semi-quantitative analysis tool that can be applied for a first-line analysis of (large) glass collections. Thanks to the commercial available portable instruments, these measurements can be performed at relative high speed and this in-situ if necessary. To illustrate the possibilities of this technique, we describe in this paper two case-studies. In a first test-case we analyze 63 naturally colored window glasses and demonstrate how groups with different iron concentrations can be identified by calculating the absorption edge position from the measured optical spectrum. In a second case-study 8 modern naturally colored and 31 intentionally colored Roman glass fragments are the point of focus. For these samples we first estimate which samples are potentially fabricated under the same furnace conditions. This is done based on the calculated color values. Finally we identify the type of applied colorants.

In this paper we studied the transmittance spectra of a collection of several glass samples taken from a 16th century stained window of the Church of Our Lady in Bruges, Belgium. We recorded the optical spectra for all the samples in the region between 350 and 1600 nm. The goal of our research was to reveal information about the composition of the glass artifacts in a fast and non-destructive way. Analysis of the optical spectra allowed us in the first place to identify the type of colorants that were used. It was possible to recognize metal ions, such as Fe 2+ , Fe 3+ , Co 2+ , Mn 3+ , Cr 3+ and Cu 2+ . Also colors made of metal nanoparticles, such as silver and copper colloids were successfully identified. The recognition of the coloring agents is of particular interest in dating the glass pieces. This is because some colorants were only used in certain periods. Green glass colored by chromium was produced only after the mid 19th century onwards. Our study showed that 3 of the 10 pieces were colored by this element and they originate as such from a later period. A second conclusion refers to the applied fluxing agent. By analyzing the spectral position of the first cobalt absorption band, we were able to classify the glass pieces as potash based (used in medieval times) or soda-based (used in modern times) and therefore to classify them as original or as restoration material. From the 10 blue colored samples, 7 of them were recognized as original material. Finally, for the naturally colored parts the analysis of the spectra allowed us to group them based on cobalt impurities.