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This paper designs a control system of mobile robot for the aged and the disabled, which consists of two main parts: human-computer interaction and drive control module. The data of the two parts is transferred via universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter. In the former part, the speed and direction information of the mobile robot is obtained by hall joystick. In the latter part, the electronic differential algorithm is developed to implement the robot mobile function by driving two-wheel motors. In order to improve the comfort of the robot when speed or direction is changed, the least squares algorithm is used to optimize the speed characteristic curves of the two motors. Experimental results have verified the effectiveness of the designed system.

Unmanned aircraft systems (UASs) have seen a dramatic increase in military operations over the last two decades. The increased demand for their capabilities on the battlefield has resulted in quick fielding with user interfaces that are designed more for engineers in mind than for UAS operators. UAS interfaces tend to support tele-operation with a joystick or complex, menu-driven interfaces that have a steep learning curve. These approaches to control require constant attention to manage a single UAS and require increased heads-down time in an interface to search for and click on the right menus to invoke commands. The time and attention required by these interfaces makes it difficult to increase a single operator’s span of control to encompass multiple UAS or the control of sensor systems. In this paper, we explore an alternative interface to the standard menu-based control interfaces. Our approach in this work was to first study how operators might want to task a UAS if they were not constrained by a typical menu interface. Based on this study, we developed a prototype multi-modal dialogue interface for more intuitive control of multiple unmanned aircraft and their sensor systems using speech and map-based gesture/sketch. The system we developed is a two-way interface that allows a user to draw on a map while speaking commands to the system, and which provides feedback to the user to ensure the user knows what the system is doing. When the system does not understand the user for some reason – for example, because speech recognition failed or because the user did not provide enough information – the system engages with the user in a dialogue to gather the information needed to perform the command. With the help of UAS operators, we conducted a user study to compare the performance of our prototype system against a representative menu-based control interface in terms of usability, time on task, and mission effectiveness. This paper describes a study to gather data about how people might use a natural interface, the system itself, and the results of the user study. Keywords: UAS control, natural interfaces, multi-modal interaction.

Holographic Raman tweezers (HRT) manipulates with microobjects by controlling the positions of multiple optical traps via the mouse or joystick. Several attempts have appeared recently to exploit touch tablets, 2D cameras or Kinect game console instead. We proposed a multimodal “Natural User Interface” (NUI) approach integrating hands tracking, gestures recognition, eye tracking and speech recognition. For this purpose we exploited “Leap Motion” and “MyGaze” low-cost sensors and a simple speech recognition program “Tazti”. We developed own NUI software which processes signals from the sensors and sends the control commands to HRT which subsequently controls the positions of trapping beams, micropositioning stage and the acquisition system of Raman spectra. System allows various modes of operation proper for specific tasks. Virtual tools (called “pin” and “tweezers”) serving for the manipulation with particles are displayed on the transparent “overlay” window above the live camera image. Eye tracker identifies the position of the observed particle and uses it for the autofocus. Laser trap manipulation navigated by the dominant hand can be combined with the gestures recognition of the secondary hand. Speech commands recognition is useful if both hands are busy. Proposed methods make manual control of HRT more efficient and they are also a good platform for its future semi-automated and fully automated work.

Research has expanded human-machine communication methods past direct programming and standard hand- held joystick control. Individual force sensors have been used as a simple means of providing environmental information to a robot and research has shown that more advanced sensitive skins can be viable input devices. These touch sensitive surfaces allow for additional modes of interaction between machines in open, undefined environments. These interactions include object detection for navigation and safety but can also be used for recognition of users command gestures by their machine partner. Key to successful implementation of these gestures is the understanding of varied strategies used for communication and interaction and the development of performance limits. Data of dominant hand grip forces was collected using a Tekscan Grip VersaTek Pressure Measurement System during opening of a door. Analysis of data from 10 male and female subjects is presented. The results of qualitative and quantitative analysis of these data show variability in hand configurations between users. Average data over the cohort is reported. These data will be used in future work to provide human metrology constraints and limits for use in simulation and design of new, physical human-robot interaction systems.

When users are immersed in cave-like virtual reality systems, navigational interfaces have to be used when the size of the virtual environment becomes larger than the physical extent of the cave floor. However, using navigation interfaces, physically static users experience self-motion (visually-induced vection). As a consequence, sensorial incoherence between vision (indicating self-motion) and other proprioceptive inputs (indicating immobility) can make them feel dizzy and disoriented. We tested, in two experimental studies, different locomotion interfaces. The objective was twofold: testing spatial learning and cybersickness. In a first experiment, using first-person navigation with a flystick ®, we tested the effect of sensorial aids, a spatialized sound or guiding arrows on the ground, attracting the user toward the goal of the navigation task. Results revealed that sensorial aids tended to impact negatively spatial learning. Moreover, subjects reported significant levels of cybersickness. In a second experiment, we tested whether such negative effects could be due to poorly controlled rotational motion during simulated self-motion. Subjects used a gamepad, in which rotational and translational displacements were independently controlled by two joysticks. Furthermore, we tested first- versus third-person navigation. No significant difference was observed between these two conditions. Overall, cybersickness tended to be lower, as compared to experiment 1, but the difference was not significant. Future research should evaluate further the hypothesis of the role of passively perceived optical flow in cybersickness, but manipulating the virtual environment’sperrot structure. It also seems that video-gaming experience might be involved in the user’s sensitivity to cybersickness.

Selecting input and output devices to be used in virtual walkthroughs is an important issue as it may have significant impact in usability and comfort. This paper presents a user study meant to compare the usability of two input devices used for walkthroughs in a virtual environment with a Head-Mounted Display. User performance, satisfaction, ease of use and comfort, were compared with two different input devices: a two button mouse and a joystick from a gamepad. Participants also used a desktop to perform the same tasks in order to assess if the participant groups had similar profiles. The results obtained by 45 participants suggest that both input devices have a comparable usability in the used conditions and show that participants generally performed better with the desktop; a discussion of possible causes is presented.

This paper presents a seamlessly controlled human multi-robot system comprised of ground and aerial robots of semiautonomous nature for source localization tasks. The system combines augmented reality interfaces capabilities with human supervisor's ability to control multiple robots. The role of this human multi-robot interface is to allow an operator to control groups of heterogeneous robots in real time in a collaborative manner. It used advanced path planning algorithms to ensure obstacles are avoided and that the operators are free for higher-level tasks. Each robot knows the environment and obstacles and can automatically generate a collision-free path to any user-selected target. It displayed sensor information from each individual robot directly on the robot in the video view. In addition, a sensor data fused AR view is displayed which helped the users pin point source information or help the operator with the goals of the mission. The paper studies a preliminary Human Factors evaluation of this system in which several interface conditions are tested for source detection tasks. Results show that the novel Augmented Reality multi-robot control (Point-and-Go and Path Planning) reduced mission completion times compared to the traditional joystick control for target detection missions. Usability tests and operator workload analysis are also investigated.

Optical Tweezers have become a widespread tool in Cell Biology, microengineering and other fields requiring delicate micromanipulation. But for those sensitive tasks, it remains difficult to handle objects without damaging them. As the precision in position and force measurement increase, the richness of information cannot be fully exploited with simple interfaces such as a mouse or a common joystick. For this reason, we propose a haptic force-feedback optical tweezer command and a force-feedback system controlled by one hand. The system combines accurate force measurement using a fast camera and the coupling of these measured forces with a human operator. The overall transparency allows even the feeling of the Brownian motion.

A low-cost robotic arm and controller system is presented. The controller is a desktop model of the robotic arm with the same degrees of freedom whose joints are equipped with sensors. Manipulating the controller by hand causes the robotic arm to mimic the movement in maser-slave fashion. The system takes advantage of the low cost and wide availability of hobby radio control components and uses a low-cost, easy-to-program microprocessor. The system is implemented with a video camera on the robotic arm, and the arm is mounted on an unmanned omnidirectional vehicle inspection robot. With a camera on the end of a robot arm, the vehicle inspection system can reach difficult to-access regions of the vehicle underbody. Learning to manipulate the robot arm with this controller is faster than learning with a traditional joystick. Limitations of the microcontroller are discussed, and suggestions for further development of the robot arm and control are made.

This paper discusses a simple, inexpensive, and effective implementation of a vision-guided autonomous robot. This implementation is a second year entrance for Brigham Young University students to the Intelligent Ground Vehicle Competition. The objective of the robot was to navigate a course constructed of white boundary lines and orange obstacles for the autonomous competition. A used electric wheelchair was used as the robot base. The wheelchair was purchased from a local thrift store for $28. The base was modified to include Kegresse tracks using a friction drum system. This modification allowed the robot to perform better on a variety of terrains, resolving issues with last year's design. In order to control the wheelchair and retain the robust motor controls already on the wheelchair the wheelchair joystick was simply removed and replaced with a printed circuit board that emulated joystick operation and was capable of receiving commands through a serial port connection. Three different algorithms were implemented and compared: a purely reactive approach, a potential fields approach, and a machine learning approach. Each of the algorithms used color segmentation methods to interpret data from a digital camera in order to identify the features of the course. This paper will be useful to those interested in implementing an inexpensive vision-based autonomous robot.

In this paper, we present preliminary work on a novel wearable joystick for gloves-on human/computer interaction in hazardous environments. Interacting with traditional input devices can be clumsy and inconvenient for the operator in hazardous environments due to the bulkiness of multiple system components and troublesome wires. During a collapsed structure search, for example, protective clothing, uneven footing, and "snag" points in the environment can render traditional input devices impractical. Wearable computing has been studied by various researchers to increase the portability of devices and to improve the proprioceptive sense of the wearer's intentions. Specifically, glove-like input devices to recognize hand gestures have been developed for general-purpose applications. But, regardless of their performance, prior gloves have been fragile and cumbersome to use in rough environments. In this paper, we present a new wearable joystick to remove the wires from a simple, two-degree of freedom glove interface. Thus, we develop a wearable joystick that is low cost, durable and robust, and wire-free at the glove. In order to evaluate the wearable joystick, we take into consideration two metrics during operator tests of a commercial robot: task completion time and path tortuosity. We employ fractal analysis to measure path tortuosity. Preliminary user test results are presented that compare the performance of both a wearable joystick and a traditional joystick.

The results of two usability experiments evaluating an interface for the operation of OctArm, a biologically inspired robotic arm modeled after an octopus tentacle, are reported. Due to the many degrees-of-freedom (DOF) for the operator to control, such 'continuum' robotic limbs provide unique challenges for human operators because they do not map intuitively. Two modes have been developed to control the arm and reduce the DOF under the explicit direction of the operator. In coupled velocity (CV) mode, a joystick controls changes in arm curvature. In end-effector (EE) mode, a joystick controls the arm by moving the position of an endpoint along a straight line. In Experiment 1, participants used the two modes to grasp objects placed at different locations in a virtual reality modeling language (VRML). Objective measures of performance and subjective preferences were recorded. Results revealed lower grasp times and a subjective preference for the CV mode. Recommendations for improving the interface included providing additional feedback and implementation of an error recovery function. In Experiment 2, only the CV mode was tested with improved training of participants and several changes to the interface. The error recovery function was implemented, allowing participants to reverse through previously attained positions. The mean time to complete the trials in the second usability test was reduced by more than 4 minutes compared with the first usability test, confirming the interface changes improved performance. The results of these tests will be incorporated into future versions of the arm and improve future usability tests.

Due to improvements in material properties through research, actuation mechanisms utilizing shape memory alloys (SMA) have been attracting more attention. Many actuation mechanisms have utilized the phase transformation of SMA's to generate motion. One new arena for the application of the alloys is the automotive industry, where they can reduce size and cost of the actuator in current models. The three major types of actuators employing SMA wires will be discussed. One such type, the antagonistic actuator, has begun to find applications where position can be controlled through the use of SMA wire. Based on this antagonistic actuator, a novel two degree of freedom SMA actuator is proposed which controls the position of an external rear view mirror. This design would replace the current DC motor design with a cheaper and more compact mechanism. The prototype concept is implemented using an antagonistic actuator based on an SMA wire, a joystick and a microcontroller.

U.S. Army Research, Development, and Engineering Command (RDECOM) Communications Electronics Research, Development and Engineering Center (CERDEC) Night Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate (NVESD) has performed early work to develop a Distributed Aperture System (DAS). The DAS aims at improving the situational awareness of armored fighting vehicle crews under closed-hatch conditions. The concept is based on a plurality of sensors configured to create a day and night dome of surveillance coupled with heads up displays slaved to the operator's head to give a "glass turret" feel. State-of-the-art image processing is used to produce multiple seamless hemispherical views simultaneously available to the vehicle commander, crew members and dismounting infantry. On-the-move automatic cueing of multiple moving/pop-up low silhouette threats is also done with the possibility to save/revisit/share past events. As a first step in this development program, a contract was awarded to United Defense to further develop the Eagle VisionTM system. The second-generation prototype features two camera heads, each comprising four high-resolution (2048x1536) color sensors, and each covering a field of view of 270°hx150°v. High-bandwidth digital links interface the camera heads with a field programmable gate array (FPGA) based custom processor developed by Sarnoff Corporation. The processor computes the hemispherical stitch and warp functions required for real-time, low latency, immersive viewing (360°hx120°v, 30° down) and generates up to six simultaneous extended graphics array (XGA) video outputs for independent display either on a helmet-mounted display (with associated head tracking device) or a flat panel display (and joystick). The prototype is currently in its last stage of development and will be integrated on a vehicle for user evaluation and testing. Near-term improvements include the replacement of the color camera heads with a pixel-level fused combination of uncooled long wave infrared (LWIR) and low light level intensified imagery. It is believed that the DAS will significantly increase situational awareness by providing the users with a day and night, wide area coverage, immersive visualization capability.© (2005) COPYRIGHT SPIE--The International Society for Optical Engineering. Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

Nowadays, armored ground vehicles such as tanks have to face an increasing number of threats. For instance, helicopters have become important threats with mainly more and more improved locking-on mode and firing mode capabilities. Plus, new lighweight ground vehicles are current threats to deal with. Consequently, Search sights have to upgrade their detection, locking-on, tracking and identification capabilities to counter multiple threats on various backgrounds and atmospheric conditions (desert, landscape...). Currently, Infrared sensors are the main core of these Surveillance Systems. In most cases, an operator (tank chief) via a joystick manages them. In this paper, a practical example of Search Sight Management for tanks associated with new automatic processes including operator information feedback is presented. The case studied here is a real-time implemented Semi-Automatic Search Infrared Sensor Suite. The article provides also system performances resulting from Field Trials. They highlight the impact of the new function in the overall system reaction time.© (2005) COPYRIGHT SPIE--The International Society for Optical Engineering. Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

Unmanned weapons remove humans from deadly situations. However some systems, such as unmanned guns, are difficult to control remotely. It is difficult for a soldier to perform the complex tasks of identifying and aiming at specific points on targets from a remote location. This paper describes a computer vision and control system for providing autonomous control of unmanned guns developed at Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center, San Diego (SSC San Diego). The test platform, consisting of a non-lethal gun mounted on a pan-tilt mechanism, can be used as an unattended device or mounted on a robot for mobility. The system operates with a degree of autonomy determined by a remote user that ranges from teleoperated to fully autonomous. The teleoperated mode consists of remote joystick control over all aspects of the weapon, including aiming, arming, and firing. Visual feedback is provided by near-real-time video feeds from bore-site and wide-angle cameras. The semi-autonomous mode provides the user with tracking information overlayed over the real-time video. This provides the user with information on all detected targets being tracke d by the vision system. The user uses a mouse to select a target, and the gun automatically aims the gun at the target. Arming and firing is still performed by teleoperation. In fully autonomous mode, all aspects of gun control are performed by the vision system.

This paper presents a new framework of an immersive kendo game with an intelligent cyber-fighter, which has its own internal needs, motivations, sets of multimodal sensors, a motor system, and a behavior system. Unlike conventional interface such as keyboard or joystick, the proposed system provides more natural and comfortable interface by exploiting multimodal interfaces such as 3D vision and speech recognition. In addition, the proposed 3D vision-based interface allows relatively free-movement in 3D space, when it compares with wired tracker-based interfaces. As a result, the user with real sword can experience an immersive fighting with the cyber-fighter in virtual environment. The proposed framework will have wide variety of applications in VR-based edutainment applications.

A robust near real-time MRI based surgical guidance and navigation scheme has been developed, validated and used. The key concept of the method is to use intra-operative MRI to facilitate the trajectory alignment process of a biopsy needle in neurobiopsy. Since the trajectory corresponding to the biopsy needle pivoted at an entry point on patient skull has two degrees of freedom, the orientation of the needle can be tracked using a 2D imaging plane placed perpendicular to the desired trajectory. Using a near real- time visual feedback during the adjustment of an alignment guidance device, the required trajectory alignment was translated into a simple in-plane targeting task on computer monitor. The orientation adjustment was achieved remotely via a set of MR-compatible strings, which were connected to a joystick. The concept of MR-guided targeting was successfully validated on a phantom set-up. This MR based guidance technique has practically allowed neurosurgeons to accomplish the required needle alignment to an arbitrary trajectory remotely in a straight forward procedure on any conventional MR scanner. Before needle insertion, the trajectory can be validated. Two successful biopsy cases using the new methodology and device have shown that the remotely operated device under MR-guidance is both effective and accurate for neurosurgery.© (2001) COPYRIGHT SPIE--The International Society for Optical Engineering. Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

To develop realistic forest machine simulators is a demanding task. A useful simulator has to provide a close- to-reality simulation of the forest environment as well as the simulation of the physics of the vehicle. Customers demand a highly realistic three dimensional forestry landscape and the realistic simulation of the complex motion of the vehicle even in rough terrain in order to be able to use the simulator for operator training under close-to- reality conditions. The realistic simulation of the vehicle, especially with the driver's seat mounted on a motion platform, greatly improves the effect of immersion into the virtual reality of a simulated forest and the achievable level of education of the driver. Thus, the connection of the real control devices of forest machines to the simulation system has to be supported, i.e. the real control devices like the joysticks or the board computer system to control the crane, the aggregate etc. Beyond, the fusion of the board computer system and the simulation system is realized by means of sensors, i.e. digital and analog signals. The decentralized system structure allows several virtual reality systems to evaluate and visualize the information of the control devices and the sensors. So, while the driver is practicing, the instructor can immerse into the same virtual forest to monitor the session from his own viewpoint. In this paper, we are describing the realized structure as well as the necessary software and hardware components and application experiences.© (2000) COPYRIGHT SPIE--The International Society for Optical Engineering. Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

This paper introduces a high speed single-mirror scanner developed by us as a versatile tracker. It can be connected with a high speed camera, a TV tracker (or color video recorder) /measurer/recorder. It can be guided by a computer, a joystick (automatic or manual) or TV tracker. In this paper, we also present the advantages of our scanner contrasted with the limitations of fixed camera system. In addition, several usable projects of mirror scanner are discussed.

Future computer interfaces will likely use 3D displays with stereographic viewing to take advantage of the increased information inherent in 3D. The appropriate roles of devices to manipulate 3D displays, including the mouse, joystick and head tracking remain unresolved. Our research centers on the use of head tracking for the control of perspective. For monoscopic viewing, we previously found that viewers can control displays effectively with head movements. They learn rapidly to use head movements, though scene adjustments amplify or even reverse natural perspective changes, and this ability persist over time. With stereo viewing, if head movements do ont produce the expected change in perspective, the viewer may be confused, reducing the effectiveness of head tracking. We tested these conjectures in the experiment reported here, establishing the extent to which the flexibility found under monoscopic viewing extends to stereo. As in previous experiments, the viewer makes head movements to see a target sphere through a ring positioned in virtual space between the viewer and the target. We used a variety of ring sizes and position to measure the speed and directness of movement under four conditions that varied the scene location in depth, plus the extent and direction of perspective change. These combinations permit us to evaluate the effects of direction and extent of scene adjustment on viewers' ability to use head movements to alter virtual viewpoint. While we found no difference for reversed adjustments under monoscopic viewing, these conditions appear more difficult in stereo viewing. Furthermore, viewers perform better when perspective changes are amplified.

Military use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) is gaining importance. Video cameras in these devices are often operated with joysticks and their image is displayed on a CRT. In this experiment, the simulated camera of a simulated UAV was slaved to the operator's head movements and displayed using a helmet mounted display (HMD). The task involved maneuvering a UAV along a winding course marked by tress. The influence of several parameters of the set-up on a set of flight handling characteristics was assessed. To enable variation of FOV and to study the effect of the HMD optics, a simulated HMD consisting of a head slaved window, was projected on a screen. One of the FOVs, generated in this way, corresponded with the FOV of the real HMD, enabling a comparison. The results show that the simulated HMD yields a significantly better performance that the real HMD. Performance with a FOV of 17 degrees is significantly lower than with 34 or 57 degrees. An image lag of 50 ms, typical of pan-and-tilt servo motor systems, has a small but significant influence on steering accuracy. Monocular and stereoscopic presentation did not result in significant performance differences.© (1997) COPYRIGHT SPIE--The International Society for Optical Engineering. Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

During normal viewing of an object, a human observer will typically make small movements in the position of the head resulting in small parallax-related image changes. The significance of these changes is apparent when viewing a static stereographic display. Since the observer expects modifications in viewing direction that accompany side to side head movements, the lack of such changes in viewing stereographic displays creates the striking illusion that the static display is rotating in a compensatory direction. Using head tracking, we generate the appropriate pairs of images on a stereographic display device in order to maintain a stable virtual stereo object for the viewer. Unnatural, but learnable mappings from input devices such as a mouse or a joystick are typically used to bring about changes in the viewing direction and viewing distance in graphic displays. As an alternative to these techniques, we have extended the use of the monitored head position, resulting in a display system that permits control of graphic objects with subtle head movements. The device permits a zone of small head movements for which there is no rotation or scaling of the virtual object, but only parallax-related images changes as projected to each eye. A slightly exaggerated head movement initiates rotation and/or scaling of the scene that terminates when the head returns to a central viewing position. We are carrying out experiments to test the performance of human subjects in tasks that require head movements to control the rotation of graphic objects. A preliminary study that only examines rotation around a single axis suggests that it may be a very effective and natural technique.

Tasks carried out remotely via a telerobotic system are typically complex, occur in hazardous environments and require fine control of the robot's movements. Telepresence systems provide the teleoperator with a feeling of being physically present at the remote site. Stereoscopic video has been successfully applied to telepresence vision systems to increase the operator's perception of depth in the remote scene and this sense of presence can be further enhanced using computer generated stereo graphics to augment the visual information presented to the operator. The Mechatronic Systems and Robotics Research Group have over seven years developed a number of high performance active stereo vision systems culminating in the latest, a four degree-of-freedom stereohead. This carries two miniature color cameras and is controlled in real time by the motion of the operator's head, who views the stereoscopic video images on an immersive head mounted display or stereo monitor. The stereohead is mounted on a mobile robot, the movement of which is controlled by a joystick interface. This paper describes the active telepresence system and the development of a prototype augmented reality (AR) application to enhance the operator's sense of presence at the remote site. The initial enhancements are a virtual map and compass to aid navigation in degraded visual conditions and a virtual cursor that provides a means for the operator to interact with the remote environment. The results of preliminary experiments using the initial enhancements are presented.© (1996) COPYRIGHT SPIE--The International Society for Optical Engineering. Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

This project focuses on the use of force feedback sensations to enhance user interaction with standard graphical user interface paradigms. While typical joystick and mouse devices are input-only, force feedback controllers allow physical sensations to be reflected to a user. Tasks that require users to position a cursor on a given target can be enhanced by applying physical forces to the user that aid in targeting. For example, an attractive force field implemented at the location of a graphical icon can greatly facilitate target acquisition and selection of the icon. It has been shown that force feedback can enhance a users ability to perform basic functions within graphical user interfaces.© (1996) COPYRIGHT SPIE--The International Society for Optical Engineering. Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

We describe an experiment which simulated many aspects of control of a remote vehicle on another planetary surface. We have developed a Telepresence-controlled Remotely Operated underwater Vehicle (TROV) and used it to perform scientific exploration in an ice-covered marine environment near McMurdo Station, Antarctica. The goal of the mission was to use telepresence and virtual reality technology to operate a remote vehicle to perform a scientific study of the marine environment under the sea ice in Antarctica. The TROV was operated both locally, from a habitat building located on the sea ice above a dive hole through which it was launched, and remotely over a satellite communications link from a control room at NASA's Ames Research Center. Local control of the vehicle was accomplished using a control box containing joysticks and switches, with the operator viewing stereo video camera images on a stereo display monitor. Remote control of the vehicle over the satellite link used either a stereo display monitor similar to that used locally, or a stereo head-mounted head- tracked display. The remote operators could also view a computer-generated graphic representation of the underwater terrain, modeled from the vehicle's sensors. The actual vehicle was driven either from within the virtual environment or by watching stereo video. Satellite communication was used to transmit stereo video from the TROV to NASA Ames and to provide a bi-directional Internet link to the TROV control computer for command and telemetry signals. All vehicle functions could be controlled remotely over the satellite link. The TROV was operated in Antarctica nearly continuously using both local and remote control for 7 weeks. The results of our experiments suggest that surface rovers using control technology with real time telepresence could vastly expand the range of human exploration from a human base on the Moon or Mars. Planetary surface rovers can also be controlled from Earth, although there is a significant time delay for such control for any planet other than the Moon. The use of virtual reality in the control interface will significantly improve the capabilities of remote rovers controlled from Earth.

The paper describes the investigations carried out to implement a line of sight control and communication link for a mobile robot vehicle for use in structured nuclear semi-hazardous environments. Line of sight free space optical laser communication links for remote teleoperation have important applications in hazardous environments. They have certain advantages over radio/microwave links and umbilical control such as greater protection against generation of and susceptance to electro-magnetic fields. The cable-less environment provides increased integrity and mechanical freedom to the mobile robot. However, to maintain the communication link, continuous point and tracking is required between the base station and the mobile vehicle. This paper presents a novel two ended optical tracking system utilizing the communication laser beams and photodetectors. The mobile robot is a six wheel drive vehicle with a manipulator arm which can operate in a variety of terrain. The operator obtains visual feedback information from cameras placed on the vehicle. From this information, the speed and direction of the vehicle can be controlled from a joystick panel. We describe the investigations carried out for the communication of analogue video and digital data signals over the laser link for speed and direction control.

Intrusive examination of patients using flexible endoscopes is commonly employed by surgeons in pre- and post-operative examination of treatment related to laryngeal illness. The insertion of naso-endoscopes through the nasal cavity is a skilled and awkward task, and viewing is limited due to the small image viewed through an eyepiece. This paper described tests undertaken in the laboratory on a scale model of the human head where an anthropomorphic robot manipulator has been adapted to allow it to assist the surgeon in endoscopic examination. Visual feedback is provided to allow fine corrections to be made automatically by the robot for focusing and glottis orientation. Corrections are adjusted by a joystick control.© (1993) COPYRIGHT SPIE--The International Society for Optical Engineering. Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

New generations of military unmanned systems on the ground, at sea, and in the air will be driven by man-portable command units. In past efforts we implemented several prototypes of such units which provided display and capture of up to four video input channels, provided 4 color LCD screens and a larger status display LCD screen, provided drive input through two joysticks, and, through software, supported a flexible 'virtual' driver's interface. We have also performed additional trade analysis of prototype systems incorporating force feedback and extensive image-oriented processing facilities applied to man-controlled robotic control systems. This prior work has resulted in a database of practical design guidelines and a new generation of hardened compact robotic command center which is being designed and built to provide more advanced video capture, display, and interfacing features, supercomputer level computational performance, and ergonomic features for hard field use. In this paper we will summarize some past work and will project current performance to features likely to be common across most unmanned systems command, control, and communications subsystems of the near future.© (1993) COPYRIGHT SPIE--The International Society for Optical Engineering. Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

Computer aided design of freeformed surfaces is strongly biased towards input and optimization of surfaces. Input modules are based on digitizing drawings or placing and manipulating spline control vertices. Design, especially during the idea generation (or conceptual) design phase, is poorly supported. We present a system based on direct manipulation of shaded images of the surfaces. The designer sketches profiles on a tablet. The profiles are positioned in object space with a spaceball (6D joystick). A network of crossing curves is built interactively. The system constructs patches over this network in realtime. The designer can correct a profile by sketching. The affected surfaces are updated immediately. Patches are defined by the curves and estimated cross-boundary derivatives. They connect with G1 continuity. Our prototype surface modeler avoids the need for exact dimensions and precise coordinates, as seen in traditional systems. Instead, it supports fast, intuitive generation and evaluation of surfaces. We discuss a comparison with other systems regarding the time needed to model shapes, and some opinions of professional industrial designers.© (1992) COPYRIGHT SPIE--The International Society for Optical Engineering. Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

One of the objectives of this study was to determine which of two cursor control devices would provide the best means of designating targets in stereo three-dimensional (3-D) space. The two devices tested were a joystick and a hand tracker. The second objective was to determine if performance improved with the use of an aiding technique to designate the targets. This aid was incorporated by changing the color of the cursor when it penetrated the target volume. The total 3-D viewing volume was divided into four perceived depth volumes within which the targets could appear. The study showed that the quickest designations occurred when using the hand tracker, and the hand tracker performed significantly better than the joystick when the targets were located in the two volumes behind the screen. There was no difference in accuracy for the two devices. Also, the use of the aiding technique was most effective (target designation time and accuracy) in the farthest behind depth volume and the front-most depth volume. Performance in the other depth volumes showed no advantage of aiding.

Design issues in teleoperator vision systemsRoss L. Pepper and Edward H. SpainNaval Ocean Systems Center, Hawaii Laboratory, P.O. Box 997, Kailua, Hawaii 96734andRobert E. ColeUniversity of Hawaii, Department of Psychology, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822AbstractThis paper describes NOSC -Hawaii's program of perceptual sciences research, supportingthe development of advanced military and civilian teleoperator systems. The general objec-tive of NOSC's Advanced Teleoperator Program is to provide the technology base required toproduce teleoperator systems which will be capable of performing man -like tasks in areastoo hazardous or too costly for human habitation.For several years, we have been engaged in a program of research aimed at developing asystematic understanding of the dynamic interactions which occur between the human operatorand the sensors, controls and displays that constitute the interface between man andmachine.Our current work is directed toward assessing the impact of several geometric parametersof stereoscopic viewing systems (camera separation, convergence and magnification), on bothtarget detection performance and measures of operator acceptance of these display features.The results of several psychophysical studies will be presented and related to displaysystem design issues.IntroductionThe Naval Ocean Systems Center (NOSC) has been engaged in a program of research anddevelopment in manned and remotely manned work systems since it's formation in 1967.The Hawaii laboratory developed an early interest in research on a wide variety ofremotely- manned work systems and undersea vehicles. Of special interest is a type ofremotely- manned system called teleoperators, machines designed to transmit man's perceptual,problem -solving, and manipulative skills into inhospitable and remote environments,especially those encountered in the deep ocean. Precursors of our modern -day teleoperatorsystems are best represented by the Cable Undersea Remote Vehicle (CURV) line of vehicles,and especially the Remote Unmanned Work System (RUWS).The RUWS vehicle was innovative in many respects. Of particular note was the viewingand display system. Two high resolution cameras were mounted side by side on a pan andtilt mechanism which was in turn mounted on a transverse rail which permitted full horizon-tal travel across the front of the vehicle and behind and above the primary manipulator.In the control van, a head -mounted display presented the video imagery to the operator.The mechanical attachment at the top of the display was a pantograph, which was electric-ally coupled to the camera pan and tilt mechanism. This coupling established and main -tained a limited spatial correspondence between the orientation of the operator's head andthe orientation of the cameras. While there were no objective tests which proved that thisarrangement would facilitate performance, the implicit assumption was that it would improvethe operator's feeling of being in the scene, and this "feeling of presence" would enhanceperformance. The potential to exploit head -motion parallax by controlling the lateralexcursions of the cameras with lateral displacement of the operator's head cer-tainly existed in the RUWS system, but its importance as a perceptual cue was not recog-nized at the time, and thus it was not implemented, nor has it been employed systemati-cally in any vehicles built to date.A combination of many factors contributed to the lack of acceptance of the head -mounteddisplay system on RUWS. First, there was no provision for accommodative adjustment at thedisplay. Since most of the operators were senior engineers who required near -fieldcorrection, they were more inclined to use the larger desk -mounted console display and thealternate joystick controls for camera positioning. Also, most operators reported thatthe head -mounted system restricted their freedom of movement, was slow to respond, and

This paper discusses the Human Factors or Ergonomic considerations related to the manual control of an optical line of sight. The general concept of the human operator as an element in the servo loop is presented, along with some examples of how this concept has been used in the design of optical tracking devices. "Aided Tracking" is described. Comparisons are made between commonly used force and displacement joysticks. Bibliographical references are provided.© (1983) COPYRIGHT SPIE--The International Society for Optical Engineering. Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

Formulas for steering a complex robotic vehicle are derived with examples. Taken together, the formulas constitute an algorithm which converts commands from a joystick or a trajectory planner into wheel speeds and steering angles. The algorithm is applied to a robotic vehicle in which all wheels are independently steered and powered. The algorithm maps operator requests onto the control space of the vehicle. Steering all the wheels introduces new command options due to increased mobility and quickness of response thereby creating a virtual vehicle for use in route and task planning which is the highest-common-multiple of land vehicle capabilities. For example, an all-wheel steering vehicle can tack uphill, step over a trench or simultaneously rotate while translating -- maneuvers not even possible for most vehicles. These and other examples, including a comparison with an exact solution, add perspective to the mathematical derivations.

Eye trackers based on the standing potential of the eye have been researched and found to have considerable base line drift and poor accuracy. A technique employing visual feedback and base line drift compensation has been developed that is sufficiently accurate to select menu items on a video display. This technique is analog and of low cost. This system is implemented to replace the joy stick on an personal computer.