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We present aeronomical observations collected using remote sensing instruments on board Venus Express, complemented with ground-based observations and numerical modeling. They are mostly based on VIRTIS and SPICAV measurements of airglow obtained in the nadir mode and at the limb above 90 km. They complement our understanding of the behavior of Venus' upper atmosphere that was largely based on Pioneer Venus observations mostly performed over thirty years earlier. Following a summary of recent spectral data from the EUV to the infrared, we examine how these observations have improved our knowledge of the composition, thermal structure, dynamics and transport of the Venus upper atmosphere. We then synthesize progress in three-dimensional modeling of the upper atmosphere which is largely based on global mapping and observations of time variations of the nitric oxide and O nightglow emissions. Processes controlling the escape flux of atoms to space are described. Results based on the VeRA radio propagation experiment are summarized and compared to ionospheric measurements collected during earlier space missions. Finally, we point out some unsolved and open questions generated by these recent datasets and model comparisons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The origin and evolution of planetary protoatmospheres in relation to the protoplanetary disk is discussed. The initial atmospheres of planets can mainly be related via two formation scenarios. If a protoplanetary core accretes mass and grows inside the gas disk, it can capture H, He and other gases from the disk. When the gas of the disk evaporates, the core that is surrounded by the H/He gas envelope is exposed to the high X-ray and extreme ultraviolet flux and stellar wind of the young host star. This period can be considered as the onset of atmospheric escape. It is shown that lower mass bodies accrete less gas and depending on the host stars radiation environment can therefore lose the gaseous envelope after tens or hundreds of million years. Massive cores may never get rid of their captured hydrogen envelopes and remain as sub-Neptunes, Neptunes or gas giants for their whole life time. Terrestrial planets which may have lost the captured gas envelope by thermal atmospheric escape, or which accreted after the protoplanetary nebula vanished will produce catastrophically outgassed steam atmospheres during the magma ocean solidification process. These steam atmospheres consist mainly of water and CO that was incorporated into the protoplanet during its accretion. Planets, which are formed in the habitable zone, solidify within several million years. In such cases the outgassed steam atmospheres cool fast, which leads to the condensation of water and the formation of liquid oceans. On the other hand, magma oceans are sustained for longer if planets form inside a critical distance, even if they outgassed a larger initial amount of water. In such cases the steam atmosphere could remain 100 million years or for even longer. Hydrodynamic atmospheric escape will then desiccate these planets during the slow solidification process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our understanding of the upper atmosphere of unmagnetized bodies such as Mars, Venus and Titan has improved significantly in this decade. Recent observations by in situ and remote sensing instruments on board Mars Express, Venus Express and Cassini have revealed characteristics of the neutral upper atmospheres (exospheres) and of energetic neutral atoms (ENAs). The ENA environment in the vicinity of the bodies is by itself a significant study field, but ENAs are also used as a diagnostic tool for the exosphere and the interaction with the upstream plasmas. Synergy between theoretical and modeling work has also improved considerably. In this review, we summarize the recent progress of our understanding of the neutral environment in the vicinity of unmagnetized planets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The review contains the important achievements in dynamics of the galactic disks. Among them there are I. New structures discovered recently: giant vortices (including giant anticyclone in the Solar vicinity); slow bar; inner oscillating structure within spiral arms similar that of enveloped soliton; chaotic streamlines in the velocity field of the gaseous disk of a real galaxy. II. New collective phenomina discovered recently: new overreflection instability initiating `mini-spiral' in the innermost central parsec of Galaxy; large-scale convection caused by nonlinear interaction of density wave with disk gas; non-kolmogorovian spec trum of weak turbulence corresponding to the observed one in the Solar vicinity. III. New methods worked out recently: reconstruction of full three-dimensional vector field of gas velocity from the observed line-of-sight velocity field; observational test for verification of the wave-nature of the spiral arms; observational test to distinguish two types of vertical motions: warp and z-motions in the density wave; derivation of correct system of two-dimensional dynamical equations from the initial three- dimensional one. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]