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Since 1990, an irregular migration industry has flourished in different cities of Indian Punjab because of the eagerness among young men to emigrate at any cost and increased border controls imposed by the European Union. In Europe, the majority of irregular immigrants from Punjab end up in Spain or Italy due to continuous regularisation programmes, support from social networks and the availability of informal jobs. In this paper, with a thematic analysis of 72 in-depth interviews with irregular immigrants from Punjab in Italy or Spain, their relatives in Punjab and members of the host community, this paper explores the main causes and consequences of Punjabi irregular immigration in Italy and Spain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The spatial concentration of immigrants has become a concern for local administrations in most European countries, as it is perceived as an obstacle to their better integration in host societies. Indian immigration to Italy began in the 1960s, but large-scale immigration of unskilled labour from Punjab and Haryana (North-West Indian states) began during the 1990s. This influx was formed by young men who entered Italy in search of economic opportunities and then concentrated spatially in the economically active regions. In this paper, using the municipal registers of inhabitants (Anagrafe), the residence permits records and the 2011 census data, firstly, I made a spatial analysis (LISA) of the settlement pattern of Indian immigrants in Italy; second, I explored the internal mobility pattern (through a gravity model) of Indian immigrants compared to other immigrant groups during 2005–2015; and finally, I studied the impact of the recent economic crisis on Indian immigration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]