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The emergence of trust and solidarity is arguably foundational for economic development and social order. Yet many studies, often survey-based, document large disparities in general trust and social cohesion between countries. Can mutual trust and solidarity arise between people even in areas of low general trust, or do national cultural contexts block such connections? We report an experimental investigation of the dynamic between national environments and local social interactions, specifically those embedded in social exchange. Results of our experiments conducted in the United States and Romania, societies marked by relatively high and low general trust, respectively, show that while national context impacts the level of relational trust formed within dyads, only this emergent relational trust affects dyadic solidarity in both societies. Importantly, burgeoning solidarity has persistent consequences for future exchanges and subsequent solidarity, thus experimentally demonstrating critical linkages between macro- and micro-level precursors to social order. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Displaying partial trust in exchanges between strangers is a common practice, but it does not effectively promote reciprocation. This is an intriguing phenomenon that warrants investigations regarding social mechanisms that can promote reciprocation without changing the level of trust. We seek to examine, given a partial-trust act, whether framing the motive underlying the act as prosocial (mutually beneficial) can promote reciprocation in an exchange between strangers. Across three experiments in the United States, we found that trustor prosocial (vs. no-motive) framing can promote trustee reciprocation through trustee felt obligation and that this effect is particularly strong among trustees with a strong rather than weak exchange orientation. Concurrently, this prosocial framing effect can operate serially through trustee perceived invitation for exchange and felt obligation. Our findings help address the conundrum of promoting reciprocation without introducing deleterious uncertainty about social motives given a partial-trust act that is prevalent in exchanges at zero acquaintance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, we apply a social exchange theoretical approach to the study of rejection. We investigate how the explicit refusal and acceptance of offered resources affect reciprocal exchanges. We distinguish contexts with explicit communication of refusal from contexts in which refusal is uncommunicated or concealed and investigate how context and the actual experience of refusal affect reciprocal social exchange behaviors and the emergence of social bonds. We also examine the effects of contexts and experiences of communicated acceptance. Results of a controlled laboratory experiment show that the contextual possibility of refusal increases giving but nevertheless weakens emerging social bonds. Experiencing refusal increases self-isolation but also, under certain conditions, greater investment in alternative relationships. The contextual possibility of acceptance, on the other hand, has little effect on giving behaviors or social bonds. The experience of acceptance, however, may reduce partner switching. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although evidence reveals that the social exchange process and identity verification process each can produce social bonds, researchers have yet to examine their conjoined effects. In this paper, we consider how exchange processes and identity processes separately and jointly shape the social bonds that emerge between actors. We do this with data from an experiment that introduces the fairness person identity (how people define themselves in terms of fairness) in a negotiated exchange context. The findings reveal how both exchange and identity processes operate in an independent as well as contingent manner to influence the development of social cohesion at the micro level. The contingent nature of the results suggests both exchange and identity theories need to be modified to account for these contingencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How do people respond to aggression? Theory differs on whether aggressive behavior deters antagonists or provokes retaliation, and the empirical evidence is mixed. We bridge contradictory findings in the literature by identifying a previously unexamined moderating variable: the extent to which individuals can increase their coercive capability (which we call escalating). We argue that when escalating is costly, aggression deters potential antagonists. In contrast, when escalating is less costly, behaving aggressively fails to deter aggressive partners. We test these predictions in two behavioral experiments that manipulate the cost of escalating and whether interaction partners are aggressive or deferential. We find support for deterrence predictions when escalating is either high or low cost but not when it is medium cost. Taken together, we provide evidence that the cost of escalation plays a key role in decisions about aggression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drawing on existing theories of social exchange as well as self-categorization theory, we consider how two forms of direct exchange influence whether structurally disadvantaged actors choose to stay in the micro-structures that disadvantage them. We posit that (1) the exit opportunity is more likely to result in disadvantaged actors coming to view their network as a group if there has been a history of reciprocal, as opposed to negotiated, exchange and (2) this psychological group formation should account for disadvantaged actors disproportionately choosing to remain in reciprocal exchange networks. We also consider whether the information actors have about the alternative network affects this choice. Findings from two laboratory experiments generally support our argument that for disadvantaged actors, psychological group formation mediates the relationship between exchange form and staying in networks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Goffman’s work on footing has paved the way to specifying the analytic concepts of speaker and hearer in social interaction. This article empirically examines participants’ moment-by-moment negotiated understandings of speakerhood in the context of conversational repair—sequences of talk dedicated to resolving problems of hearing, speaking, or understanding. I demonstrate that participation in repair sequences reflects interactants’ orientations to socially distributed rights to knowledge, or epistemics. Even though speakers are ordinarily entitled to speak on their own behalf and, thus, to repair their own talk, the application of this right is a contingent, negotiated, and sometimes contested matter. Using the methodology of conversation analysis to examine a large corpus of video-recorded English, Russian, and bilingual multiparty interactions, I show how asymmetries in participants’ experiences and expertise are drawn upon in the process of repair resolution, suggesting a respecification of the notion of “self” as it pertains to repair. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Early theoretical work on social exchange focused on how exchange relations generate social structural outcomes. Specifically, gift giving was said to evoke status structures. No experimental evidence exists to verify or refute the notion that gift giving during exchange processes generates status hierarchies. We present experimental results demonstrating the emergence of status inequalities directly from social exchanges in dyads. Our findings support the assertion that the receiving of a gift causes the recipient to feel deferential toward the exchange partner. More formally, we demonstrate how gift giving, linked to a behavioral interchange pattern, has the capacity to induce differential performance expectations. These results are a first step toward testing the theory that status is an emergent property of exchange.

Network structures have strong effects on the frequency and terms of negotiated exchanges, shaping who exchanges with whom and who fares better or worse. In this study we ask how exchange patterns of commitment and inequality are affected when negotiated exchanges are combined with reciprocal exchanges in more complex relationships of embeddedness. Drawing on the organizational literature on embeddedness and economic performance and the social exchange literature on forms of exchange and integrative bonds, we predict that embedding negotiated exchanges in a relationship of reciprocal exchange will increase the strength of behavioral commitments and reduce the effects of structural power differences on inequality. We base these predictions on two theoretical mechanisms that link forms of exchange to bonds of attachment: the relational climate of trust and solidarity created by reciprocal exchange, and the more cooperative task structure of negotiated exchange. A laboratory experiment provides substantial support for our logic and predictions. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This study examines how and when small networks of self-interested agents generate a group tie or affiliation at the network level. A group affiliation is formed when actors (a) perceive themselves as members of a group and (b) share resources with each other despite an underlying competitive structure. We apply a concept of structural cohesion to small networks of exchange and identify two dimensions of such networks that foster a group affiliation: the network-wide potential for inclusion in exchanges and the inequality of structural power. These structural properties are theorized to generate positive emotions and cognitions that promote collectively oriented behavior toward others in the exchange network, even if such behavior runs counter to individual self-interest. We theorize and test how and when such structural properties give rise to embedded social relations, thereby forging connections between micro theories of exchange and macro theories of social embeddedness. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Theories of susceptibility to peer influence have centered on the idea that lower status adolescents are likely to adopt the behaviors of high status adolescents. While status is important, social exchange theorists have shown the value of analyzing exchange relations between actors to understand differences in power. To build on status-based theories of peer influence, this study analyzes power dependence relations in three adolescent friendship groups. Analyzing adolescent interaction as social exchange showed how being in a group with balanced power relations insulated adolescents from peer influence, even when some peers were delinquent or low academic achievers. In contrast, adolescents in groups with unbalanced power relations were particularly susceptible to peer influence. This study presents an additional way to analyze the peer influence process and illustrates the importance of applying social psychological theory to cases of micro inequality, particularly in the context of small groups. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In this study, we investigate the relationship between uncertainty and trust in exogenous shifts in modes of social exchange (i.e., those that are not initiated by the individuals in a given exchange system). We explore how transitions from a high uncertainty environment (reciprocal exchange) to lower-uncertainty environments (nonbinding or binding negotiated exchange) affect the level of trust among exchange partners. Our results show that if cooperation rates are high before and after a change in mode of exchange, trust declines when the uncertainty created by the mode of exchange decreases. Furthermore, we find that trust depends on both the amount of uncertainty inherent in the form of the exchange and the level of cooperation before and after the transition. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In our everyday interactions as they unfold in real time, how do we do including? This article examines a specific set of interactional moments when the potential to be included (or not) recurs: when a newcomer arrives to some social scene where two or more already-present persons are actively engaged in some activity and that newcomer displays interest in joining into their activity. I show how arriving newcomers bodily display that they want to join into the pre-present party’s interaction, and I analyze a key utterance-based practice that pre-present speakers use to include newcomers into their interaction—the practice of previous activity formulating. Through this practice, speakers summarize the activities or conversational topics in which they were engaged before establishing copresence with arrivers, thereby making way and making sense for them so they can join into their interaction. By showing that participants treat pre-present speakers’ offers of formulations as preferred over arrivers’ requests for formulations, I demonstrate that how speakers come to deliver these formulations implicates social solidarity between pre-present and arriving parties. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Reciprocity is one of the defining features of social exchange and social life, yet exchange theorists have tended to take it for granted. Drawing on work from a decade-long theoretical research program, I argue that reciprocity is structured and variable across different forms of exchange, that these variations in the structure of reciprocity have profound effects on the emergence of integrative bonds of trust and solidarity, and that these effects are explained and mediated by a set of risk- and conflict-based processes. I discuss the consequences of this work for organizational theories of embeddedness and the production of social capital through network ties. Finally, I ask how the structure of networks and the structure of reciprocity are related to one another, and explore possible implications of the structure of reciprocity for exchange theorists’ assumptions about actor motivations. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

We investigated the consequences for exchange outcomes of the violation of an assumption underlying most social psychological research on exchange. This assumption is that the negotiated direct exchange of commodities between two actors (pure exchange) can be validly represented as two actors splitting a fixed pool of resources (split pool exchange). We designed five experimental conditions to determine differences in bargaining behavior in pure exchange and split pool exchange. We conclude that the validity of research using the split pool exchange approach is questionable, since we observed much less variance in outcomes and more efficient agreements in split pool exchange than pure exchange. Moreover, although theories accurately predicted outcomes of split pool exchange, they could not accurately predict outcomes of pure exchange. We discuss possible implications of our findings for exchange and research on exchange. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cross-cultural trust and cooperation are important concerns for international markets, political cooperation, and cultural exchange. Until recently, this problem was difficult to study under controlled conditions due to the inability to conduct experiments involving interaction between participants located in physically distant locations. We report results of an experiment using a Web-based "virtual lab" to study trust and trustworthiness between Japanese and Americans in real-time interaction. Participants played a variation of the Trust Game in two different experimental conditions: a "flags-on" condition in which everyone's nationality was publicly identified during the session, and a "flags-off" condition in which participants did not know who was Japanese or American. The findings most strongly support Yamagishi's structural theory of trust, which predicts that Japanese will form more durable exchange relations compared to Americans. We found less support for explanations that focus on cultural differences in trust and trustworthiness, and for cognitive explanations that point to the effects of a shared social identity between participants and partners with common nationality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The value of reciprocity in social exchange potentially comprises both instrumental value (the value of the actual benefits received from exchange) and communicative or symbolic value (the expressive and uncertainty reduction value conveyed by features of the act of reciprocity itself). While all forms of exchange provide instrumental value, we propose that the voluntary and uncertain nature of recurring reciprocal exchanges, in which actors individually give benefits to each other without formal agreements, make the act of reciprocity itself an important vehicle for conveying symbolic value. We experimentally test the value actors place on partners' voluntary acts of reciprocity—over and above the instrumental benefits obtained—by providing subjects with computer-simulated partners who systematically vary in the instrumental value, probability, and predictability of their reciprocity. Our results show that behavioral preferences are governed primarily by the instrumental value of exchange, while sentiments of trust, affective regard, and solidarity are strongly influenced by the symbolic value of constant reciprocity. We discuss implications for theories of social exchange and social capital. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Networks of trust relations often emerge under conditions of uncertainty or risk to facilitate social exchange. Under some conditions, such networks represent a form of social capital that can be mobilized in support of general social cooperation in the society. Under other conditions, however, such networks may have negative effects on the degree of social cooperation in the society. To examine these conditions I draw on experimental work on cooperation and trust, as well as recent work on social exchange under conditions of uncertainty and risk. After an introduction, in which I acknowledge those who have been influential in my career, I comment on the implications of this work for recent research on social capital. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Standardized survey interviewing is a form of institutional talk whose special con- straints often conflict with ordinary conversational practices. Although survey manuals tend to recognize the conflict between standardization and respondents' requests for clarification, an alternative strategy for managing troubles in answering-"projective reporting"-is largely missing from the literature. Respondents may report circumstances in response to fixed-choice questions rather than providing an answer option. Such reports invite the interviewer to infer its relevance for an answer. Respondents use projective reporting in two different ways: to account for particular answers and to defer judgments in answering. Speakers and recipients in ordinary conversation have a variety of options for dealing with the upshots of projective reportings, but some of these options are prohibited in standardized interviews. When respondents use reporting to defer judgment, ordinary conversation and standardized interviewing can conflict [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rumor discourse has been conceptualized as an attempt to reduce anxiety and uncertainty via a process of social sensemaking. Fourteen rumors transmitted on various Internet discussion groups were observed and content analyzed over the life of each rumor With this (previously unavailable) more ecologically robust methodology, the intertwined threads of sensemaking and the gaining of interpretive control are clearly evident in the tapestry of rumor discourse. We propose a categorization of statements (the Rumor Interaction Analysis System) and find differences between dread rumors and wish rumors in anxiety-related content categories. Cluster analysis of these statements reveals a typology of voices ("communicative postures") exhibiting sensemaking activities of the rumor discussion group, such as hypothesizing, skeptical critique, directing of activities to gain information, and presentation of evidence. These findings enrich our understanding of the long-implicated sensemaking function of rumor by clarifying the elements of communication that operate in rumor's social context [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper integrates research in network exchange and collective action. Network exchange research typically assumes that structurally disadvantaged actors cannot collude. Meanwhile, collective action research shows that cooperation can be undermined by the temptation to "free-ride" on others' efforts. In this paper we extend the scope of network exchange theory by allowing low-power actors to form coalitions. We also extend game-theoretic research by embedding collective action in a network of social relations and power processes. A theory of coalitions in exchange networks is presented, which predicts the critical mass below which coalitions fail to affect power inequality and above which coalitions become unstable. We present the results of a preliminary experimental test of the theory. The results demonstrate not only that coalitions form but even that they can reverse power inequality. However, larger coalitions were more stable than predicted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although social psychology focuses on the relationships between individuals and their social environments, it has often failed to fully incorporate actors' social structural positions (e.g., their location in the social hierarchies of race, gender, socioeconomic status, or sexual identity). In this paper we analyze patterns in social psychology's approach to social inequalities, which we argue has been characterized by neglect, a focus on difference rather than on similarity, a tendency toward essentialism, and a lack of attention to social context and power We then focus in turn on the three major theoretical traditions in sociological social psychology--social exchange, social cognition, and symbolic interaction--and summarize how each has (or has not) addressed the topic of inequality. We conclude by presenting four directions for future research that we believe will move social psychology toward a clearer understanding of social inequalities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The new millennium opens the third decade of work on network exchange theory. During two decades of continuous growth, the program has been tested as intensively and extensively as any in sociology. This article summarizes existing research and describes new directions. First, we describe basic network connections and recently discovered structural power conditions that sharply affect exchange ratios. Then we show how game theory enhances understanding of collective action in exchange networks. Two new research programs link network exchange theory to status characteristics theory: the first demonstrates that power produces status, and the second shows how status value produces power. Finally, we discuss how questions about network dynamics, complexity, and legitimation define paths for future theory growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent work on marital adjustment has taken a social exchange view of relationship satisfaction. Assessments of satisfaction are thought to be a function of equity, equality and reward level. Based upon questionnaire responses from 220 young, married subjects, the effects of these factors on adjustment are examined for both low and high religiosity males and females. While equality is more important for the high religiosity group, the exchange model explains approximately the same amount of variance in adjustment for both groups of males. For females, the model explains more variance in adjustment for those low on religiosity. This finding is interpreted in terms of religion performing a compensatory function, and implications for the use of the exchange perspective are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most research on justice in resource allocation has not paid attention to the various alternative ways in which a given allocation principle may be formulated. This study examines the relationship among three "subrules" (or forms) of the equality and contribution principles, respectively. Subjects rated the fairness of a nonrecipient person's allocations to cooperating (teams) and competing individuals (nonteams) in the context of sport. The subrules were compared in terms of their perceived fairness when applied in distribution (i.e., money presented) and retribution (i.e., money presented withheld). The results showed that subjects male distinctions among the subrules, that these distinctions are more marked for the equality than for the contribution rules, and that the equality subrules are more clearly differentiated in retribution than in distribution. These and other findings are discussed on the basis of their practical and theoretical implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Network exchange theory has focused on a simple type of exchange structure in which all the exchange relations are equally valuable. In this paper we relax the usual constraint of uniform relations and evaluate the applicability of current theoretical approaches to structures of unequally valued exchange relations. For this evaluation we draw on experiments that entail three variants of mixed relations in four networks. We examine the fit of theoretical predictions and outcomes with respect to the probabilities of exchange transactions and their payoffs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a longitudinal investigation of dating couples, I examined two types of exchange orientation for their associations with quality and stability of relationship. One type is concern that one is not the underbenefited partner in an inequitable relationship (underbenefiting exchange orientation, or UEO); the other is concern that one is not the overbenefited partner in an inequitable relationship (overbenefiting exchange orientation, or OEO). I found only slight support for Murstein et al.'s exchange orientation theory, which states that a high exchange orientation decreases satisfaction in close relationships. Underbenefiting exchange orientation, however, did not predict change in relationship quality over time, nor did it predict stability versus dissolution of the relationship. In support of a modified exchange orientation theory, overbenefiting exchange orientation was associated positively (rather than negatively, as was UEO) with some measures of relationship quality. OEO, however, also led to very little change in relationship quality over time and did not affect relationship stability versus dissolution of the relationship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The positive relationship between depression and perceptions of inequity is supported strongly by theory and research. Less well understood, however, are the conditions under which individuals in intimate relationships perceive inequity without experiencing depression. Employing ideas developed from equity theory and self theory, and using responses from more than 5,000 married and cohabiting respondents from the National Survey of Families and Households 1987-1988 (NSFH), we examine the moderating effect of self-esteem on the relationship between perceived equity/inequity and depression. We argue that self-esteem primarily buffers the impact of feeling underbenefited on depression. As predicted, high self-esteem moderates the relationship between underbenefiting and depression, but not the effect of overbenefiting on depression. The findings suggest ways in which individuals' self-esteem affects responses to imbalanced exchanges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper advances a line of work on an expected-value model of social exchange, in which a power structure indicates opportunities for exchange and a sample space of exchange networks. When the probability distribution of the networks in this sample space is known, the expected-value model provides an excellent account of the distribution of benefits among actors in a variety of power structures. The model would be more elegant if it also predicted the probability distribution of exchange networks. Furthermore, in its current form, the model fails to account for the observed exchange payoffs in the Kite, a structure that has attracted considerable attention among exchange theorists. Here I advance the expected-value model by deriving the probability distribution of exchange networks from a simple process in which the probability of an exchange at time t depends on the value of an exchange at time t-1. I show that this approach addresses the anomalies posed by the Kite structure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Actors accumulate resources--wealth--in exchange networks by making frequent and profitable exchanges. Network exchange research offers structural explanations for actors' differential earnings in particular exchanges, but not for the differential frequency with which particular exchanges occur. We address this deficiency by outlining and evaluating three explanations for exchange frequencies. We adapt the first two explanations, a random structure model and a random mutuality model, from existing theories of earnings differentials. The third model, a reciprocity model, offers an explanation based on actors' structurally determined tendencies to reciprocate the attention of others. The frequency with which various exchanges occur is conceptualized as a function of how actors' attempts to exchange with partners are biased by their locations and their partners' in the overall exchange network. Although the reciprocity model generally provides the best fit, our results suggest that the explanatory power of structural factors varies considerably between networks and settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Part of every toddler's development hinges on self-stimulating and self-soothing behavior--most commonly, running away from its caregivers, only to return a moment later. Recent neurobiological research shows that such attachment behavior is mediated in the brain by endogenous opioid activity, a relationship entailing reciprocal inhibition of the brain's noradrenergic system as well. Cycles of attachment and separation in the toddler's behavior point to a pattern of hysteresis associated with the lagged effects of these two brain systems, and highlight obvious behavioral discontinuities of the sort susceptible to conceptualization as catastrophes. Making explicit such discontinuities in attachment behavior, as this paper suggests, helps to isolate widespread equivalent patterns of catastrophe in all social interaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study I show that the effective social structure can depend nontrivially on the appropriate model of the actor, that the actor model used can influence the effects of some aspects of structure on other aspects of structure, and that consideration of the actor model can aid the construction of structural theory. I do this by looking at one problem in structural theory: how network structure affects the distribution of power in exchange networks. Use of a declining marginal utility model of the actor, as opposed to a constant marginal utility model, can alter the effective network structure and the effects of network structure on the distribution of power. It also leads to a differentiation between two properties of a network connection that produce a power imbalance: satiation negativity and competition negativity. Moreover, when a declining marginal utility actor model is used, one actor characteristic--the distribution of the actor's interests among resources--also can condition the effects of structure on power. I suggest a method for operationalizing the declining marginal utility model (and other models) of the actor experimentally, so that the points made and the issues raised in this study may be investigated empirically. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two forms of relations--dependence and interdependence--are the basis for two distinct types of social structure: 1) exchange relations and networks, and 2) groups. The structure of mutual dependence that underlies all social exchange relations is riskier than the structure of interdependence that underlies cooperation in groups. I argue that the risk of dependence is reduced, to varying degrees, by the way in which transactions are structured and organized over time. I discuss: 1) the form of transactions (negotiated or reciprocal) and 2) the relations between sequential transactions (independent or serially dependent). Both negotiated transactions and serially dependent transactions reduce risk, in different ways and to varying degrees. The joint decision process of negotiated transactions changes the structure of exchange directly, by introducing elements of interdependence. Serially dependent transactions provide actors with the opportunity to change the structure, through the use of contingent action, and allow for the development of emergent aspects of exchange. Implications for research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research tests competing predictions about the effectiveness of coercive strategies in social exchange. Both the classical exchange theories and most bargaining theories argue that the actual use of punishment in exchange relations provokes hostility and retaliation, and leads to a decrease rather than an increase in mutually rewarding exchange. I argue instead that more frequent use of contingent punishment would increase the effectiveness of punishment power. Although the motivation to minimize loss constrains the use of punishment, that motivation should make it highly effective when used. An experiment tested these predictions, using computer-simulated actors who were programmed to employ varying levels of contingent punishment, under different structures of punishment power, against a partner with a reward power advantage. In support of my predictions, more frequent punishment for nonexchange increased the partner's reward exchange without increasing retaliation or negative affect. Punishment that was both strong and consistent produced the highest frequency of reward exchange and the least negative affect toward the partner. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In generalized exchange, the rewards that an actor receives usually are not directly contingent on the resources provided by that actor; therefore free riding can occur. The actor can receive benefit without contributing. Scholars interested in generalized exchange systems have often overlooked this inherent free-riding problem and thus have been overoptimistic in concluding that generalized exchange promotes mutual trust and solidarity among the participants. A more complete understanding of generalized exchange requires that the underlying social dilemma in such situations be appreciated fully. This paper represents our initial efforts to bridge two research traditions--research on social exchange and research on social dilemmas. This synthesis also may be of value to scholars interested in social dilemmas. With few exceptions, research in this tradition often ignores the internal structure of the social contexts in which such dilemmas arise. We present the results of a series of experimental studies. The findings suggest that "network-generalized" exchange systems promote higher levels of participation (or cooperation) than do "group-generalized" exchange systems, regardless of the size of the network or group. In addition, mutual trust promotes a higher level of participation, especially in network-generalized exchange systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we develop a formal, testable theory of problem-solving behavior with special relevance to individuals and small groups. The theory is consistent with principles drawn from operant behavior and social exchange theories but also incorporates elements of cognitive psychology. Problem solving is defined as a nonroutine activity oriented toward changing an undesirable state of affairs. The focus on change differentiates problem solving from coping, which is oriented toward relieving feelings of stress. A decision-making model is presented, which takes the problem-solving process through its latter stages. The theory is based on two axioms and three theorems pertaining to the process of decision making. These axioms and theorems serve as the foundation for deriving 14 theorems that establish the antecedent conditions affecting decisions relevant to each of four stages in the problem-solving process. This theory is distinguished from other problem-solving theories in its effort to account for conditions leading to awareness of problems and in its emphasis on generic problem-solving processes rather than on the effectiveness of problem-solving outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study combines two of the major theoretical perspectives in social psychology: social exchange and attribution theory. We propose a theoretical model that depicts the influence of two fundamental social factors--structural power and outcome equity--on causal attributions for exchange outcomes, which in turn mediate behavioral reactions to the exchange outcomes. We manipulate the social factors in a vignette describing an exchange between a female typist and another student (male or female) who needs a paper typed. Female subjects play the role of the typist and respond to a series of questions about their perceptions of the situation. Findings support the hypothesized positive relationships between structural and perceived power, and between outcome equity and perceived fairness. The effects of perceived equity on attributions appear stronger than those of perceived power. Also, there is some support for the role of self attributions in mediating reactions to exchange outcomes in opposite-sex dyads, but such mediating effects are less robust in female dyads. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The symbolic interactionist model of self-concept, also known as the reflected appraisal process, was adopted as the theoretical framework to investigate the effects of social interaction processes on the self-appraisals of adult participants in a small group. Interpersonal behavior ratings of actual other, reflected, and self-appraisals were collected in a two-wave panel design from 99 adults participating in human relations training groups. Covariance structure models were used to estimate the causal paths of the reflected appraisal process. Evidence supporting the conventional model of reflected appraisal was mixed. Actual appraisals had moderate effects on reflected appraisals, and had no effects on self-appraisals when reflected appraisals were controlled. Reflected appraisals had some effect on self-appraisals, but significant reciprocal projection effects also were found, casting further doubt on the generalizability of the conventional model. The findings are discussed in light of contextual and interactional factors influencing the giving and receiving of interpersonal feedback in small groups. The results add to the growing body of evidence suggesting that the symbolic interactionist formulation of reflected appraisal assumes an overpassive view of individual agency in self-concept formation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We conducted a longitudinal investigation to advance our understanding of determinants of the breakups of premarital relationships. We considered causes, derived from several major theories, that were located in a variety of sources-in the relationship, in the social network environment, and in the individual. We extended previous longitudinal research methodologically by analyzing the data with hazard analysis, in which the dependent variable is the instantaneous rate at which a relationship terminates. In the analyses we examined how measures of different factors affected the rate at which a relationship changed from intact to broken up. We found that several variables were significant predictors of the rate at which relationships terminated, including comparison level for alternatives, amount of time spent together, dissimilarity in race, support from partner's social network, and duration of the relationship. These findings offer evidence suggesting that variables derived from social exchange, similarity, and social network theories all contribute toward an explanation of premarital breakups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Emerson's exchange theory builds from the micro-social toward the macro-social level of conception, observation, and analysis. Yet although this theory is important, some of its main concepts were formulated originally in simple, categorical terms and require refinement. Some progress toward such refinement is evident in recent research on the measurement of positional power. Aiming toward further progress, the present paper proposes a procedure for measuring power imbalance at the exchange network level, reports exploratory experimental data testing the measure in a hypothesis implied by Emerson's theory, and suggests a direction for future research using the measure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Power-dependence theory and the social exchange framework on which it is based have been restricted to the analysis of rewarding exchanges. The only costs considered have been the "rewards foregone "from alternative exchange relations. This paper reports the first in a series of experiments studying power use in social exchange when actors have control over both positive and negative outcomes for one another. The relative effects of balance and imbalance in power over positive outcomes (reward power) and power over negative outcomes (punishment power) are compared in a laboratory experiment in which two real subjects and two computerized actors are connected in four-person exchange networks. Analyses of the distribution of exchange between the two real actors found that only imbalance in reward power affected power use. Punishment rarely was used and power use was no greater when punishment power was imbalanced than when it was balanced. An explanation for these findings, which suggests that imbalances in reward and punishment power are likely to affect behavior under different structural conditions, is proposed and hypotheses are offered for future testing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Variance in sex role attitudes among a national sample of 1,522 women is investigated using a scale of attitudes toward the appropriate role of women as the dependent variable in a multiple regression analysis. Exchange theory would predict that the traditional orientation toward women, being most costly today, is likely to be less favored by women with the most available alternatives. The findings indeed show that those who supported a traditional role for women were older, less educated, had lower incomes, and lower feelings of personal competence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article reports findings from an experiment measuring the effectiveness of different persuasive appeals-normative, altruistic, reciprocal positive, and reciprocal negative-when dealing with different types of bureaucratic organizations Log-linear analysis is used to compare the possible combinations of relations of organization types and persuasive appeals to various measures of effectiveness. The results support the exchange theory view that the client's "bargaining power" is the key factor behind an appeal's effectiveness. Comparison of actual measures of effectiveness with the clients' expectations, reported in previous studies, is used to discuss the existence of "bureaucratic competence." Finally, the results reemphasize the claim that the bureaucrat's attitudes and behavior are less universalistic and impersonal than is stipulated by the Weberian model of ideal-type bureaucracy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Building on some concepts and methods recently introduced by Spiegel and Machotka, this investigation deals with four common nonverbal signifiers of social dominance: lateral opposition, precedence, posture (sitting and standing), and elevation. Our concern is to know how interdependent these signifiers may be and whether they are equally meaningful as indicators of dominance. An analysis of variance of 64 male and female figure drawings shows that elevation accounts for about two-thirds of the explained variation in dominance attribution. Lateral opposition effects are the weaken, while effects of intermediate strength are found for precedence and posture. Interaction among these elements contributes very little to the attribution of dominance. In no instance are these results affected by sex of rater or sex of drawn figures. The hierarchy of dominance cues that emerges from these findings is discussed in connection with recent developments in the social psychology of power symbolism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A self-presentation approach suggests that people will attempt to augment their persona! responsibility for actions that produce positive consequences when situational cues appear to deny rather than grant them the appropriate credit. This effect should be most pronounced when self-presentational goals, such as influencing an audience, are salient. Sixty-four subjects who strongly endorsed one or the other side of an issue were given high or low choice to write and deliver an attitude-consistent speech. Also, they were instructed to focus on either influencing the intended audience (persuasive role) or behaving naturally (natural role). As predicted, subjects in the persuasive role condition displayed greater polarization of subsequent attitudes, took greater responsibility for their performances, and claimed to have done better speeches when they had been given low rather than high behavioral choice. In contrast, subjects in the natural role condition displayed a slight but nonsignificant direct relationship between choice and attitude polarization. The results demonstrate that attitude polarization can occur under antecedent conditions of low behavioral choice; this has not been suggested by other theoretical approaches to the area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This experiment examined the effect of expecting to interact socially with another person upon the degree of attitudinal similarity assumed to exist between oneself and that person. Male and female undergraduates were tested individually along with a same-sex undergraduate confederate who posed as a naive subject. The subject and confederate independently examined a written account of factual evidence ostensibly presented during an actual courtroom trial and independently indicated how likely they would be to render a verdict of guilty. They also indicated their own opinions on four issues irrelevant to the court case. As hypothesized, subjects projected their own likely-to-vote-guilty response onto the confederate to a much greater degree when they expected to discuss the court case to agreement with that other than when they did not. Projection of similarity on the issues irrelevant to the case was not appreciably influenced by the expectation manipulation. The results argue that assumed similarity judgments are not entirely attributable to an availability heuristic. Instead, such judgments seem to have a functional value for the perceiver. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes some of the ways that actors try to establish their trustworthiness in interaction. It is argued that they do so through a type of social exchange in which the principal importance of the goods exchanged lies not in their utilitarian value to those who receive them but in their significance as gestures that communicate the intentions of the actors making them. This type of social exchange is called symbolic exchange. A vocabulary of symbolic exchange in American society is described, and the influence of various dimensions of social structure on the character of symbolic exchange is discussed. Social structural dimensions discussed include status hierarchy vs. status equality, formality vs. informality, and specificity vs. diffuseness. Finally, it is suggested that symbolic exchange acts as a link between communicative behavior and social exchange as such. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports the results of a laboratory experiment on two structural variations in social contingencies: (1) the extent to which one person's rewards are contingent on another's behavior, either completely (dependence) or partially (interdependence); and (2) the correlation of the reward opportunities of members of interdependent dyads, either uncorrelated (social exchange) or positively correlated (cooperation). Their effects on dyadic exchange and cooperation were investigated under condition of no prior contingency information and concurrent availability of an individual response. Fifty-four experimental subjects interacted via human test consoles to earn money. The results indicate a strong effect of dependence/interdependence; dependent dyads seldom maintained exchange in the presence of an individual alternative but most interdependent dyads did. Reward correlation had no effect on interaction. Both results are explained by (1) the actual reinforcement received for social and nonsocial responses during deviations from exchange, and (2) the effects of an individual alternative on attempts to recover disrupted interaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using the theoretical outlines of Barker's (1968) theory of behavior settings, we postulate the existence of structural inducements to the participation of students in the extracurricular activities of the school. Consistent with the predictions of the theory, we find that the extracurricular behavior settings in small schools are `under-manned," and in large schools these settings are "over-manned." The result of this `" phenomenon is a strong negative relationship of school size to rates of participation in the behavior settings of the school. In the data we analyze on a representative sample of high schools, size has consistently strong negative effects on rates of participation, but the findings admit to no simple interpretation. The direction and magnitude of the effects vary with the nature of the activity. We suggest that those activities which are highly central to the organization, but which are inelastic in the sense of absorbing further participants (e.g., journalism), show the strongest manning effects; while activities that are both noncentral and inelastic (e.g., debate) show the weakest effects of manning. Further, activities that are low in centrality and high in elasticity (e.g., hobby clubs) illustrate a form of reverse manning-increased rates of participation with increases in school size. The strength of the manning effects we observe, as well as their direction, suggest the need to take into account the structural properties of the school, especially school size, in the investigation of the effects of activity participation on student outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of the certainty of individuals' self-perceptions on their related self-presentations were investigated. Subjects were given either a problem set which would ostensibly predict their future performance or sample problems which would not afford an accurate prediction. They also received fictitious success or failure feedback on their performances. Self-presentations were measured by having subjects select 20 problems to solve from tests which varied in difficulty and in how well they could diagnose high and low task ability. Subjects believed that their choice of problems and scores would be known to other group members. When subjects believed that prior performance would accurately predict future performance, self-presentations were consistent with subjects' self-perceptions. However, under low certainty conditions, self-presentations were uniformly positive and unaffected by prior performances. The results appear to support the hypothesis that self-enhancement motives are of sufficient strength to occasion risk-taking in self-presentations when subjects believe they have a chance of succeeding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]