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Why do many people underestimate economic and racial inequality and maintain that theirs is a meritocratic society? Existing work suggests that people are rationalizing, misinformed, or misled. This article proposes an additional explanation: Inequality itself makes economic and racial disparities difficult to understand. In unequal societies, individuals establish their networks at formative institutions patterned by class and race. As a result, they unwittingly condition on key causal pathways when making descriptive and causal inferences about inequality. We use a simple agent-based model to show that, under circumstances typical to highly stratified societies, individuals will underestimate the extent of economic and racial inequality, downplay the importance of inherited advantages, and overestimate the relative importance of individual ability. Moreover, we show that they will both underestimate the extent of racial discrimination and overestimate its relative importance. Because segregated social worlds bias inference in these ways, all individuals (rich and poor) have principled reasons to favor less redistribution than they would if their social worlds were more integrated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A longstanding urban sociological literature emphasizes the geographic isolation of city dwellers in residence and everyday routines, expecting exposures to neighborhood racial and socio-economic structure driven principally by city-wide segregation and the role of proximity and homophily in mobility. The compelled mobility approach emphasizes the uneven distribution of organizational and institutional resources across urban space, expecting residents of poor Black-segregated neighborhoods to exhibit non-trivial levels of everyday exposure to White, non-poor areas for resource seeking. We use two sets of location data in the hypersegregated Chicago metro to examine these two approaches: Global Positioning System (GPS) location tracking on a sample of older adults from the Chicago Health and Activity Space in Real-Time (CHART) study and travel diaries on a sample of younger adults by the Chicago Metropolitan Agency for Planning (CMAP). We introduce a novel and flexible individual-level method for assessing activity space exposures that accounts for the spatially proximate environment around home. Analyses reveal that activity space contexts mimic the racial/ethnic and socio-economic landscape of respondents' broad residential environment. However, after residential-based adjustment, Black younger (CMAP) adults from poor Black neighborhoods are disproportionately exposed to Whiter, less Black but less non-poor neighborhoods. Older (CHART) adult activity spaces align more closely with their residential areas; however, activity spaces of poor-Black-neighborhood-residing CHART Blacks are systematically poorer and, less consistently, more Black and less White after local area adjustment. Implications for understanding contextual exposures on well-being and the potential for age or cohort differences in isolation are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How do real-estate investors make decisions about where to purchase properties? In recent years, an increasing share of the market has gone to investors, making it critical that we understand the behaviors of these important actors. This study examines investment as a relational process. Through 74 interviews with real estate investors, as well as additional interviews with homeowners and renters in low- to middle-income neighborhoods in Baltimore, I find that strategic interactions and intimate relational work among professional and amateur investors are key to understanding how properties are sold. Professional investors cultivate bonds with new investors by identifying common goals and obstacles. They also use concealment strategies to sell homes, including: legal concealment, concealment through bundling, and concealment through brokers. Legal concealment involves using legal vehicles to transfer properties between owners. Concealment through bundling occurs when properties are bundled together to be sold in bulk. Finally, concealment through brokers entails finding brokers who can connect sellers to investors from other markets. These strategies obscure not only the nature of the relationship between buyers and sellers but also the quality of products being sold. The series of exchanges resemble how products are sold within direct-selling organizations and other predatory industries, which rely on a pyramid-like structure of sponsors and distributors. Furthermore, concealment strategies are more likely to happen in weaker markets and poorer neighborhoods where investor behavior is less constrained—this suggests that concealment has potential to increase urban inequality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the face of India's enduring caste inequalities, their entrenchment or resistance is central to social and urban navigation. In this article, I locate music as an important site to investigate how caste comes to be spatialized, where place identity comes to symbolize group difference, with the effect of exacerbating social and spatial segregation. I use ethnographic field notes from attending musical events and 103 interviews with members of two live musical worlds situated in the southern city of Chennai: Carnatic music, which is seen as the preserve of Brahmin, or "upper" caste residents of the city; and Gaana music, which is associated with Dalit, or previously "untouchable" caste urban residents. I argue that for caste elites, symbolic power is constructed and maintained through norms and boundary work, thus producing hegemonic place identity and cultural power. For the caste oppressed, caste discrimination is experienced as stigmatized place identity, which is variously managed, reappropriated, or rejected through a range of strategies. The persistence of place-based stigma to devalue caste identity shapes the experience of caste-based urban inequalities that obstruct marginalized communities' right to the city. In recent years, Gaana musicians are using their music to protest caste-based urban segregation, indexing the rise of a cultural articulation of an anti-caste assertion that challenges the marginalization of urban Dalits. This article advances sociological understandings of the forms that urban segregation can take when layered with caste as an axis of social difference and conceptualizes spatialization of caste as a driver of urban segregation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

School segregation has been a topic of significant sociological research in the United States. Less attention has been devoted to understanding the relationship between school district inequalities and secession, a political tool that forms new boundaries after a formal withdrawal from an existing school district. This paper analyzes the school district secession attempts that have occurred since the year 2000 using national data and builds upon qualitative research and case studies focused on a single region or metropolitan area. Drawing on social closure theory, I explore the community characteristics associated with secession attempts. To do so, I create a measure of social imbalance that leverages the geographic variation between places attempting a secession and the school districts they are nested within. Results indicate that the percentage of residents with a college degree is among the strongest predictors of secession attempts, highlighting the salience of educational attainment at the population-level for selecting into the use of this political tool. Results also indicate that school districts successfully created through secession cleave onto racial and economic divides for both the residential and student populations, driven by secessions located in the South. School district secession processes elucidate the many pathways by which school segregation is produced and perpetuated, including micro-level school and neighborhood selection decisions, jurisdictional restructuring of district boundaries, and the national and state-level legal landscape. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social demographers and historians have devoted extensive research to patterns of racial segregation that emerged under Jim Crow and during the post-Civil Rights era but have paid less attention to the role of slavery in shaping the residential distribution of Black populations in the United States. One guiding assumption has been that slavery rendered racial segregation to be both unnecessary and impractical. In this study, I argue that apart from the master–slave relationship, slavery relentlessly produced racial segregation during the antebellum period through the residential isolation of slaves and free people of color. To explain this pattern, I draw on racial threat theory to test hypotheses regarding interracial economic competition and fear of slave mobilization using data from the 1850 Census, as well as an architectural survey of antebellum sites. Findings suggest that the residential segregation of free people of color increased with their local prevalence, whereas the segregation of slaves increased with the prevalence of the slave population. These patterns continue to hold after controlling for interracial competition over land or jobs and past slave rebellions or conspiracies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study extends research on cohort effects and crime by considering how bifurcated population dynamics and institutional constraints explain variation in homicide rates across racial groups in the United States. Drawing upon the extensive research on racial residential segregation and institutional segmentation, we theorize how the criminogenic influences of cohort characteristics elucidated in prior work will be greater for Black cohorts than for White cohorts. We assess our hypothesis by estimating Age-Period-Cohort Characteristic models with data for the total population and separately for the Black and White populations over the 1975–2014 period. The results reveal persistent effects of relative cohort size and nonmarital births on Black cohort-specific homicide rates but null effects among the White population. These effects follow Black birth cohorts across the life course, leading to higher rates of both homicide arrest and homicide victimization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Payday lenders, check cashers, and other "alternative" financial services (AFS) have garnered attention from policymakers and advocates for the poor because they are more expensive than traditional banking—constituting what some call a "Ghetto Tax." This is the first study to explore neighborhood-level AFS geography on the national scale. Leveraging a dataset comprising the universe of AFS in 2015, I show that not only are there substantial differences in AFS presence between white and non-white neighborhoods, but that these disparities are largest in the most segregated metropolitan areas. This finding supports theories that racial segregation creates easily identifiable markets for institutions to avoid, target, and exploit. I further show that while AFS presence declines with neighborhood income, the gap between black and white neighborhoods is widest among high-income neighborhoods, reflecting the unique vulnerability of even affluent blacks to institutional marginalization. This work documents how the overlapping geographies of racial isolation and AFS prevalence shape the very cost of money for different racial groups, illustrating the importance of institutions transmitting the effects of racial isolation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extensive research explores how increasing ethnic out-group populations in society affects inter-group attitudes. Drawing on the threat and contact hypotheses, this study develops and tests a framework examining the role of segregation in the out-group size/prejudice relationship. We suggest that whether increasing minority share in a community generates processes of contact and/or perceived threat will depend on how segregated groups are from one another. This, in turn, will determine when high minority share communities have positive, negative, or null effects on inter-group attitudes. Using data from white British individuals in England, we observe that community segregation moderates the effect of community percent non-white British on prejudice, as well as mechanisms of positive inter-group contact and perceived threat. Residents of more homogeneous communities report relatively warm inter-group attitudes, regardless of how segregated they are. Residents living among high proportions of out-group where the groups are integrated report an improvement in out-group attitudes. It is only residents living among large out-group populations where groups are more segregated from one another—at the nexus of high minority share and high segregation—who report colder out-group attitudes. This higher prejudice is driven by both lower positive contact and higher perceived threat in these communities. Using two waves of cohort panel data, longitudinal analysis provides more robust evidence in support of the diversity-segregation nexus framework: communities becoming more ethnically mixed and segregated see prejudice increase, while those becoming more mixed and integrated see stable, or somewhat improving, relations. Collectively, this paper shows that mechanisms of positive contact and threat appear conditional on both the size of out-groups in an area and how segregated groups are from one another, generating key differences in when and how increasing ethnic out-group size affects inter-group relations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A theory of structured ignorance is developed and applied in an analysis of variation in the number of racist organizations in U.S. counties in 1997 and 2000. The theory identifies forms of structural differentiation that would make the worldview constructed within racist organizations seem plausible to a critical mass of individuals. I argue that racial and ethnic heterogeneity, industrial heterogeneity, income inequality, and changes in the economic structure within local communities provide "evidence" that may appear to be consistent with white supremacists' claims if individuals lack an alternative interpretation. Educational inequality, however, inhibits racist organizing by facilitating the exchange of information that could be used to reject the white supremacists' claims and by promoting passive acceptance of the existing order., ********** Throughout much of the history of the U.S., a majority of white Americans have favored racial segregation based on a belief in the natural superiority of whites over blacks. […]

We ask whether ethnic residential segregation influences the future educational careers of children of immigrants in Sweden. We use a dataset comprising a cohort of children who finished compulsory school in 1995 (n = 6,560). We follow these children retrospectively to 1990 to measure neighborhood characteristics during late childhood, and prospectively through 2003 to measure the number of years of education attained thus far. The largest immigrant groups came from Finland, Turkey, former Yugoslavia, Iran and Chile. Our empirical analysis reveals that immigrant children who grow up in neighborhoods with many young coethnics who have limited educational resources, obtain relatively low average grades from compulsory school, and on average, do not attain the same levels of education as do immigrant children who grow up elsewhere. For a minority of immigrant children who lived in neighborhoods with educationally successful young coethnics, we find a positive effect of growing up in an ethnic enclave. Also in this case, the effect of the ethnic environment on future educational attainment is mediated by school results in compulsory school. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies have shown that as the percent black or percent Hispanic grows, that group's residential segregation from whites tends to increase as well. Typically, these findings are explained in terms of white discriminatory reaction to the perceived threat associated with minority population growth. The present analysis examines whether these racial threat effects depend on the extent of racial and ethnic diversity in an area. This possibility is tested by estimating otherwise standard models of black-white and Hispanic-white segregation using metropolitan area data from the 1990 and 2000 U.S. censuses. Results from robust regression analyses strongly support the prediction for each of the white-minority pairs: the racial threat effect is significantly diminished in areas with greater multi-ethnic diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Whites, blacks and Latinos in the United States tend to live in different neighborhoods and attend different schools. Does this segregation influence youth in the long run? This study used longitudinal data from the NELS to see whether neighborhoods' or schools' proportion black and/or Latino during the high school years influences educational attainment through age 26. The analyses indicate that concentrations of blacks and Latinos in schools, but not zip code areas, associates with lower attainment in the long run. Students in predominantly black and Latino schools are less likely to earn a high school diploma or equivalent and to earn a bachelor's degree or more than similar students in predominantly white schools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent research suggests that racial residential segregation may be detrimental to health. This study investigates the influence of neighborhood racial isolation on obesity and considers the role of neighborhood disorder as a mediator in this relationship. For the city of Philadelphia, we find that residence in a neighborhood with high black racial isolation is associated with a higher body mass index and higher odds of obesity among women, but not men, highlighting important sex differences in the influence of neighborhood structure on health. Furthermore, the influence of high racial isolation on women's weight status is mediated, in part, by the physically disordered nature of such neighborhoods. Disorder of a more social nature (as measured by incident crime) is not associated with weight status. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although many models of urban racial inequality make predictions about the geographic distribution of social groups and social goods, these predictions are rarely tested spatially. This is because (1) it can be extremely difficult to measure geographic distance using social science datasets and (2) when studying residential segregation, researchers generally measure the total extent of segregation in a region rather than the distribution of racial and ethnic groups within a region. This article overcomes these problems by introducing a geographic information system (GIS) variable construction technique that allows researchers to measure the distance between social groups and goods more precisely than is otherwise possible and by demonstrating the importance of using maps to examine the distribution of social groups and goods within metropolitan areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Economic segregation increased in the U.S. between 1970 and 1990. Three hypotheses suggest that economic segregation affects low-income children's educational attainment, but they provide different predictions about the direction of the effect. I combine census data with data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics to show that an increase in economic segregation between census tracts in the same state hardly changes overall educational attainment but it exacerbates inequality between high-income and low-income children. With overall inequality held constant changes in economic inequality within census tracts have little effect on low-income children's educational attainment. But changes in inequality between census tracts reduce the educational attainment of low-income children. Substituting segregation between school districts for segregation between census tracts yields the same conclusions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Considerable effort has been devoted to understanding the social, economic, and cultural forces that produced the Great Migration and to describing the success of southern African American migrants upon their arrival in the North. In contrast, relatively little research has examined the settlement patterns of southern migrants. This article uses the 1970 Neighborhood Characteristics Public Use Microdata Sample to determine whether migrants were more likely than northern-born blacks to reside in neighborhoods that (1) were more highly segregated, (2) had more families living in poverty and (3) were characterized by higher levels of family instability. The results reveal that, on average, recent migrants from the South resided in the "best" neighborhoods, that past migrants were located in the "worst" neighborhoods, and that northern-born blacks fell between the two migrant groups. Recent migrants also received the greatest locational returns to human capital characteristics such as education and employment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study we examine the thesis that the black church represents a semi- involuntary institution with patterns of attendance shaped by dynamics of segregation in the rural South. We replicate the analyses of Ellison and Sherkat (1995) - who found distinctive church participation patterns in the rural South through an examination of church attendance in two nationally representative data sets (the General Social Surveys for 1972-94 and the 1984 National Alcohol Survey). We explore levels of African American church attendance and how selected covariates of attendance differ by region. We find no evidence of distinctive overall attendance levels in the rural South, but we do find some modest support for key implications of the semi-involuntary thesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article identifies several mathematical and conceptual problems with Massey and Denton's (1983a) Relative Concentration index (RCO). Massey and Dneton proposed this index to measure the spatial concentration of minority groups, a dimension of segregation they identify as relevant to their "hypersegregation" hypothesis. This index has also influenced segregation research and has been replicated in U.S. Census Bureau analyses by Harrison and Weinberg (1992). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this response we correct an error in our earlier description of the RCO index. We also confirm that the index is not bounded on the negative side as we had previously thought, and we discuss the conditions under which its value goes below -1. We consider defining concentration in terms of density rather than area and systematically compare area-and density-based measures. We conclude that in spite of its methodological imperfections RCO remains a useful and informative measure of spatial concentration that can be safely used until a clearly superior alternative is identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article describes the process and characteristics of Latino settlement in Chicago. It identifies elements of segregation and discrimination associated with Latino status. The analysis disagrees with Massey's claim that Latino settlement is proceeding along the lines of the ecological model. It claims, that, though descriptively, relevant, the model is not, very useful for explaining the Latino experiences, particularly prejudices and practices related to the status of Latinos as a dominated group in the U.S. The author claims that a combined historical, qualitative, and quantitative analysis reveals, crucial qualifications that statistical analyses often miss. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The best-developed theoretical model for research on minority group incorporation into society predicts gradual but progressive assimilation. This study investigates the residential patterns of Chinese residents of the New York metropolitan area, questioning whether this model adequately accounts for the differences in personal characteristics of the Chinese who live in different parts of the metropolis and for the segregation of the Chinese from other racial and ethnic groups. We conclude that socioeconomic status, marriage, and fertility operate among the Chinese, as for other groups, to promote residential location outside the Chinatown enclave. But the unique characteristics of the enclave economy, the new immigrants' kinship ties to the ethnic community, and the ethnic segmentation of the housing market jointly structure the locational pattern. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Case studies suggest that public housing is highly segregated by race and ethnicity, but this conclusion has not been verified on a broad sample of metropolitan areas. In this article, we use administrative data gathered from local housing authorities in 1977 by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). Employing standard indices, we measure the degree of segregation in public housing projects classified by ownership status (authority-owned vs. privately subsidized) and design (family vs. elderly). We find that elderly and subsidized projects are largely white whereas family and authority-owned projects are predominantly minority. Patterns for specific SMSAs suggest that black-white segregation is very high and is determined primarily by the rate of black population growth. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Abstract This study treats the relationship between labor force composition and income as outlined by alternative models, competition and segregation. Analyses of 323 Israeli occupations focus on the relations between the income of European/American men and the proportions of women, Arab men, and Asian/African men across the entire occupational spectrum, as well as in the core and peripheral sectors of the economy. Using two-wave regression models for 1972-1983, we find: (a) Segregation of women, Arabs, and Asian/African Jews did not significantly increase. (b) Occupations with high proportions of subordinate groups experienced a relative decline in the income of superordinates. (c) This process of competition was especially pronounced in the periphery. The results lend strong support to the competition hypothesis and only limited support to the segregation hypothesis. The findings further suggest that the structure of the economic periphery facilitates more intensive competition than in the core. Finally, we find that exclusion harms not only subordinates, but also some superordinates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores industrial variations in gender segregation among blue-collar, manufacturing positions. National census data on employment by occupations and industry, along with other industrial-level statistics, are used to identify the relationships between an industry's economic resources and labor market characteristics, and its level of blue-collar segregation. The analysis reveals that the highest levels of blue-collar segregation are found in manufacturing industries that possess relatively few economic resources and that provide lower rewards to workers than other industries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract From the assumption that social structures evolve under the constraint of minimizing the total time expended on their operation, I derive equations describing the number, distribution, area, and population of territorial subdivisions. I show how this derivation is connected with earlier ones, how an error stemming from several earlier derivations need no longer arise, and review research done to date. Many of the derived equations are new and have not yet been tested empirically. I suggest that, though the derivation is here developed for human territorial subdivisions, it should apply to territorial subdivision in other species as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the case of one large northern suburban region, the best predictors of change in racial composition of individual suburbs are the initial black proportion and the presence of white ethnics. The effect of initial racial composition reflects the process of increasing ghettoization of blacks which has commonly been found in the North Ethnicity is interpreted as a basis for soda! solidarity in the context of a collective action model of community development. Its effect is found to be limited to working-class suburbs, suggesting that the emergence of ethnicity has some specific class and community bases. Finally, none of a series of community characteristics associated with the ecological lift-cycle model has a significant effect on racial change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The socioeconomically detrimental consequences of ethnic or religious discrimination in Israel is shown to depend on the degree of community segregation. Part of the low levels of achievement of Jews of Asian or African origin is attributable to a disadvantageous distribution across Israeli communities. However, competing with Jews of European or American origin, Asian-Africans are disadvantaged at every step in the attainment process. The low attainment of Arabs is largely attributable to their low social origins. Their community and institutional segregation from Jews protects them from further socioeconomic subordination. It follows that community, occupation, adn religion interact in Israel, while community, occupation, and ethnicity do not. Hence, we reach two general conclusions; (1) Communities within one small country do differ in the way ascriptive status functions in the process of socioeconomic attainment; and (2) what is important about communities for the subordinate group form the dominant one. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT The decade of the 1970s has been one of considerable racial change in city neighborhoods. Advances were made in reducing social segregation between races, but the residential segregation between blacks and whites has increased. In this study of racial residential segregation in Birmingham, Alabama, more all-white and all-black neighborhoods were discovered in 1977 than in 1970. Birmingham's total population decreased and attained a higher percentage black. The white population tended to increase where the prospect of having black neighbors was low and the number of housing units was increasing, primarily due to new construction. The black population tended to increase in neighborhoods that decreased in number of housing units, and many of those neighborhoods were predominantly white not long ago. The most significant result was that blacks and whites were more residentially segregated in 1977 than in 1970. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents information on racial segregation in places of employment. Each year, the Equal Employment Opportunities Commission (EEOC) collects data from over 35,000 employers on the race and sex composition of their work force, for each of nine broadly defined occupational groupings from managers to service workers. By aggregating these data, one can examine racial segregation among broadly conceived occupational peers. The EEOC survey, conducted annually, is a mail census of most private employers in the country. Nearly all private employers with 100 or more employees are included in this survey. For firms with more than one place of business, a separate data record is treated for each place at business with 25 or more employees. It is concluded that differences among the occupations in their segregation indices are consistent for men and women and remain when controlling for industry, size, and concentration of employment in the occupation. They are attenuated-- but still remain-- when differences in the average racial composition of the other employees at the same place of work are taken into consideration.

ABSTRACT "Multiplexity" is the overlap of roles, exchanges, or affiliations in a social relationship. In two cities, adult friendship dyads are examined for multiplexity in three affiliations: kin, neighbor, and coworker. Several factors are proposed to account for multiplex ties: limited opportunities for social contact; preference for the special similarities that kin, neighbors, and coworkers have; and preference for holistic and diffuse friendships. Two structural features are discovered: repetition of multiplexity, and segregation of affiliations. These mean that if multiplexity appears in one friendship, it tends to be repeated in others. But the categories kin, neighbor, and coworker seldom appear in the same friendship. Repetition and segregation are demonstrated by comparing observed friendships with expectations from a random-choice model. When social and demographic differentials in multiplexity are examined, they confirm the importance of both opportunities and preferences in motivating multiplex friendships. Consequences of multiplexity for friendship behavior are hypothesized, and one consequence (contact frequency) is analyzed. Neighbor multiplexity increases friendship contact, a reflection of high opportunities for contact among neighbor friends. Kin and coworker multiplexity do not increase friendship contact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents comments on the misuse of standardized indexes for measuring residential segregation. A criterion for independence has been suggested: that a measure should only be dependent on the segregation curve. Another criterion is that a measure's expected value not be a function of minority. The appropriateness of using a measure to make intercity comparisons depends on which criterion one adopts. If one wants to measure segregation as the deviation from randomness, then the index of dissimilarity is not a suitable measure. First, the index does not satisfy a very basic principle, the exchange principle. If two families exchange houses so that each is moving to a block that has a greater proportion of the other race than the block they came from, then segregation is reduced. Necessarily, the two families must be of a different race. This exchange principle would seem to be basic to any notion of what it means to reduce segregation. The index of dissimilarity would indicate that segregation had decreased by the same amount in both sets of exchanges.

ABSTRACT Sociological treatment of the aged as a minority group and ecological theories of urban structure suggest that the urban aged should be segregated from other age/life-cycle groups and be concentrated near city centers. This study examines intraurban location and segregation of the aged in two cities, Cleveland and San Diego. A path model is specified from ecological theory which takes location of the aged as a function of distance from the city center, housing type, housing value, space characteristics and household types. The model is estimated using block-level data from Cleveland and San Diego. Although the two cities differ in ecological structure, the aged in both tend to be located on blocks near the city center, with multi-unit structures, high value housing, low population potential, low crowding, and a high proportion of primary individuals. The relationships, however, are generally weak and the variance explained small, indicating dispersion of the aged throughout the cities. Dissimilarity indices also show a moderate degree of segregation between the aged and the non-aged. These results suggest that conceptions of the aged as segregated into centralized, undesirable urban areas are overstated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT The authors construct a regional model of residential segregation in the South. using demographic and socioeconomic variables. Based on an analysis of the age, size. percent black, and occupational and income differentials in 32 southern cities, the findings show that (1) age is still the strongest predictor of residential segregation (2) socioeconomic factors need to be examined in their traditional southern context as indicators of residential segregation (3) occupational--not income--differences have the greater effect on levels of residential segregation and (4) changes in socioeconomic status for blacks in the South have not been accompanied by concomitant changes in residential segregation. Problems of developing and testing causal models of segregation are discussed, combined with specific suggestions for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Contrary to the still persisting views of William Graham Sumner, stateways can make folkways. Despite evasive reactions (recapitulating the tactics of a century past), a surprising amount of court-ordered desegregation has occurred in southern and border states. Public colleges and universities, however, have lagged behind. But with continued pressure and firmer executive action, law can be an instrument for forging a new morality in support of equal educational opportunity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Atlanta standard metropolitan statistical area, in 1960, was an increasingly urbanized area characterized by population growth, expansion, and economic dominance of the central business district. It is in precisely such a context that ecological theory proposes a greater amount of residential segregation in the inner zones of the metropolitan area than in the outer zones. This proposition was empirically tested over five socioeconomic indicators. Census tracts were classified into eight concentric zones emanating from the metropolitan center with the intraclass correlation coefficient employed as a measure of segregation. Observed results strongly support the hypothesis. A density gradient was also demonstrated. The further proposition that density represents an intervening link between the ecological variables of distance and segregation was examined in this context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Attitudes concerning the acceptance of black students on a Deep-South campus were measured by three surveys conducted during the first six years of desegregation. A strong and consistent trend toward increasing acceptance was analyzed using analysis of variance techniques, revealing that increasing liberality of incoming freshmen played a major role, but that even greater changes were associated with the student's academic year. Further analysis indicated that the latter changes were not, as traditionally held, of academic origin but, like the changes in enrolling freshmen, indicators of the pervasive influence of mass cultures and media. Academic tradition was also questioned by the finding that the observed relative liberalism of the Arts and Sciences students could be accounted for by differential recruitment, rather than the supposedly highly liberalizing effects of the curriculum. By implication, present attempts to limit cultural evolution through control of the mechanisms of formal education are ineffective anachronisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The key to explaining and predicting changes in South African society lies in the fact that a cutting point can be defined on the dimension of power-authority-ability to make or influence decisions affecting the life chances of the whole population-that comes very near dividing "whites" from "nonwhites." If (1) the dominant issue is the distribution of power- authority and (2) "the South African problem" is viewed as a two-party conflict with racially defined parties, then there are eight possible resolutions of the conflict, classifiable as annihilative, integrationist and separatist. The available evidence indicates that from least to most likely are annihilative, integrationist and separatist resolutions. Within the separatist category, secessionist resolutions appear less likely than a segregationist resolution-specifically a form of segregation clearly leading to a federal structure. Analysis of the South African case suggests for comparative research generalizations about intrasocietal racial conflicts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies of racial prejudice have sometimes neglected the social situation. Racial prejudice is here examined against a background of religious fundamentalism and social change. Intense fundamentalist commitment is found to be positively correlated with racial prejudice, although subscription to "religious racism" is surprisingly rare. Moreover, a majority of these fundamentalist respondents are realists with regard to eventual integration. Gradual desegregation of businesses and schools has altered the Dallas, Texas, social situation. Once strongly committed to segregation norms, these Dallasites are gradually beginning to rationalize their peaceful compliance with desegregation and are receptive to paternalistic explanations of the process. The strength of attitude responses gives some support to an explanation of attitude change in terms of dissonance theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using the 1960 Census Tract data for Philadelphia, we examine the degree of residential congregation and segregation of the six principal "national origin" groups in the city, relating the patterns of congregation and segregation in turn to a variety of socioeconomic characteristics of the tracts. The intercorrelation matrix of these national origin groups forms a Guttman simplex with several interesting "inversions" that, in turn, predict "inversions" on selected socioeconomic characteristics of the tracts. In a technical appendix, we consider the relative merits of the Duncan index of dissimilarity and our use of phi correlation coefficients for the purposes of our particular problem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A longitudinal test of the Shevky-Bell model of increasing scale, using data from the U. S. for the last century shows the accuracy of the social rank and urbanization axes as aspects of increasing scale, but indicators selected from this model fail to confirm the segregation axis as a trend related to scale. The Shevky-Bell model of sub-area differentiation which its authors developed for census tract units was applied to the description of other sub-area units. The social rank axis appeared for each area unit, the urbanization axis was barely discernable, and the segregation axis appeared to be a general factor rather than an independent axis of differentiation. It is suggested that the indicators for the segregation axis are measuring the fundamental process of functional specialization of sub-areas, while the other two axes describe the factors around which the specialization of areas is organized. Further- more it appears that the axes of sub-area differentiation shift as the sub-area unit of analysis is changed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Efforts to upgrade Negroes in the petroleum refining industry, which is concentrated in the Southwest, started long before the end of World War II, but reached a peak of activity in the economic and social ferment following 1950. This paper examines in detail some of the efforts to eliminate segregated seniority lines in the petroleum refining industry and concludes that a number of forces have been required to break down formal job segregation in this industry, but that the extent to which employment patterns actually change will depend upon such factors as: economic conditions; the attitudes of management, white workers, and the union; the particular promotion system involved; the initiative and organization of the Negroes involved and the kinds and amount of power they can bring to bear on management, unions, and white workers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Attitudes of white parents of school children in Winter Park, as measured by a Likert scale, are widely distributed but predominantly unfavorable. Favorable and unfavorable attitudes are significantly associated with occupational prestige, education, a configuration indicating relative exposure to southern race relations norms, and regional self-identification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An effort is made to subject to empirical test the assumption that a large amount of guilt is associated with segregation. Subjects are students in a southern university. It is argued that, inasmuch as "the American Creed" is not the only set of relevant norms, the assumption represents a drastic simplification of the normative dimensions of the race issue. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article briefly discusses predictions or hypotheses of various social scientists about desegregation, for the period of 1950-55, in the U.S. Years 1950-1955 were taken as the period during which the school segregation cases were making their way through the courts and the possibility of a court-ordered end to compulsory segregation was becoming evident. Sociologists, social psychologists, and some other social scientists have long had a special interest in matters related to race, ethnic minority groups, and intergroup relations, and much of their research has been in or related to these fields. As the crisis over segregation in the public schools built up toward its climax during the early 1950's, the special competence of social scientists in racial matters was given recognition by the lawyers and jurists concerned with the segregation cases. Most of the so-called prediction studies in social science have been of the actuarial type, involving large numbers of cases. Data are collected concerning the presumably relevant characteristics of each individual or case, the cases are exposed to a similar experience or passage of time and measures are obtained on the "performance" of each, and an analysis is then carried out to determine which characteristics or factors are most closely associated with the desired performance, the criterion. Another type or aspect of prediction in which social scientists have had some experience involves the projection of existing trends.

This article focuses on Negro leadership in order to correct race relation patterns in a Southern community of the U.S. One of the significant features of race relations in the past five years has been the emergence of new patterns of Negro leadership in southern communities. Prior to the various court decisions which withdrew legal support from the traditional framework of segregation, Negro leadership gave the appearance of conforming to the pattern of "accommodating" or "compromise" leadership. They were also accepted by Negroes because accommodation was regarded as the most practical and effective mode of adjustment in the existing power situation. The desegregation decisions of the U. S. Supreme Court, even without extensive implementation, redefined this power situation. The study presented here is performed through interviews with a panel of 21 Negroes tentatively designated as "leaders" by social scientists familiar with the community. A panel of 21 white leaders was also selected. Subjects were allowed to give as few or as many responses to each question as they wished, and Negro subjects were encouraged to include their own names if they felt they should. The second portion of the study was an attitude survey of a sample of the adult Negro population. Analysis of tabulated data of respondents of both panels revealed that a real change in leadership had indeed taken place between the "Pre-Boycott" and "Post-Boycott" periods.

This article cites a study investigating the relationship between the social characteristics of the sub-areas in the city-county area and variations in voting behavior. The study thus constitutes both an attempt to measure the relations between the "social type" of a neighborhood and its voting, and a test of one method of identifying social type. This study is based on one phase of a larger investigation of local government, the Metropolitan Saint Louis Survey. The aim of this survey was to assess the present status of local government in a large metropolitan area; the study of the relationship between the governmental process and structure, on one hand, and the citizen as voter and as client, on the other; and a dynamic assessment of the possibilities of governmental change of many sorts, with special reference to the integration of the 149 governmental units of Saint Louis City and Saint Louis County in Missouri. The study is performed by using the Shevky-Bell typology of sub-urban areas which is based on three indexes. These indexes are: the index of social rank; the index of segregation; and the index of urbanization. The index of urbanization is a composite measure based upon fertility ratio, proportion of single-family dwelling units, and proportion of women in the labor force.

The study presents a conceptualization of racial prejudice within the framework of an ideal-type dichotomy. A race is a human grouping which is culturally defined in a given society. "Racial prejudice" is a system of reciprocal relations of stereotype, discrimination and segregation existing between human groupings which are considered as "races." Racial prejudice is a special case of prejudice which may assume many forms cultural, ethnic, class, religious, etc. From the sketchy characterization it can be seen that the competitive type of prejudice is highly maladjusting in any society. The amount of conflict is directly proportional to the intensity of competitive prejudice. Any alleviation of prejudice will increase social cohesion, productivity, etc. Although the analysis is not limited to the Western World, the competitive type of prejudice is most characteristic of Western societies since the nineteenth century. Typical examples of this type of racial prejudice are the prejudice against Negroes in the United States since the Civil War, against Jews and Gypsies in Europe, against Chinese and Japanese in California and against Negroes in the great industrial centers of Brazil.

The article gives information of a study to discover the qualities and quantities of readiness and resistance to desegregation among a group of some 300 white male adult members of the work force in Guilford County, North Carolina. Adequate resources made it possible to draw a random, stratified area-probability sample of the white male, adult work force of the county, in which the rural and urban populations are proportionately represented. It is a popular notion that the South is a homogeneous unit so far as its attitudes toward desegregation are concerned. But this is wrong on the state level where there are strategic and crucial differences between the so called seven hard-core states and the other ten states most frequently included in the southern region. And it is also wrong within any one of these states, hard or soft core, for here, too, there are unmistakable differences in the degree of readiness for or resistance to the social changes implied in the term desegregation. What is true between and within southern states also applies to southern individuals. There is a continuum, then, of resistance, a social and a personal continuum.