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The Fifth Generation (5G) mobile networks use millimeter waves (mmWaves) to offer gigabit data rates. However, unlike microwaves, mmWave links are prone to user and topographic dynamics. They easily get blocked and end up forming irregular cell patterns for 5G. This in turn causes too early, too late, or wrong handoffs (HOs). To mitigate HO challenges, sustain connectivity, and avert unnecessary HO, we propose an HO scheme based on a jump Markov linear system (JMLS) and deep reinforcement learning (DRL). JMLS is widely known to account for abrupt changes in system dynamics. DRL likewise emerges as an artificial intelligence technique for learning highly dimensional and time-varying behaviors. We combine the two techniques to account for time-varying, abrupt, and irregular changes in mmWave link behavior by predicting likely deterioration patterns of target links. The prediction is optimized by meta training techniques that also reduce training sample size. Thus, the JMLS–DRL platform formulates intelligent and versatile HO policies for 5G. When compared to a signal and interference noise ratio (SINR) and DRL-based HO scheme, our HO scheme becomes more reliable in selecting reliable target links. In particular, our proposed scheme is able to reduce wasteful HO to less than 5% within 200 training episodes compared to the DRL-based HO scheme that needs more than 200 training episodes to get to less than 5%. It supports longer dew time between HOs and high sum rates by ably averting unnecessary HOs with almost half the HOs compared to a DRL-based HO scheme. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Structureless communications such as Device-to-Device (D2D) relaying are undeniably of paramount importance to improving the performance of today's mobile networks. Such a communication paradigm requires a certain level of intelligence at the device level, thereby allowing it to interact with the environment and make proper decisions. However, decentralizing decision-making may induce paradoxical outcomes, resulting in a drop in performance, which sustains the design of self-organizing yet efficient systems. We propose that each device decides either to directly connect to the eNodeB or get access via another device through a D2D link. In the first part of this article, we describe a biform game framework to analyze the proposed self-organized system's performance, under pure and mixed strategies. We use two reinforcement learning (RL) algorithms, enabling devices to self-organize and learn their pure/mixed equilibrium strategies in a fully distributed fashion. Decentralized RL algorithms are shown to play an important role in allowing devices to be self-organized and reach satisfactory performance with incomplete information or even under uncertainties. We point out through a simulation the importance of D2D relaying and assess how our learning schemes perform under slow/fast channel fading. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]