Search

In this paper, we propose and demonstrate a damage detection technique based on the automatic classification of the Lamb wave signals acquired on a metallic plate. In the reported experiments, Lamb waves are excited in an aluminum plate through a piezoelectric transducer glued onto the monitored structure. The response of the monitored structure is detected through a high-resolution phase-sensitive optical time-domain reflectometer (ϕ-OTDR). The presence and location of a small perturbation, induced by placing a lumped mass of 5 g on the plate, are determined by processing the optical fiber sensor data through support vector machine (SVM) classifiers trained with experimental data. The results show that the proposed method takes full advantage of the multipoint sensing nature of the ϕ-OTDR technology, resulting in accurate damage detection and localization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lamb Wave (LW)-based structural health monitoring method is promising, but its main obstacle is damage assessment in varying environments. LW simulation based on piezoelectric transducers (referred to as PZTs) is an efficient and low-cost method. This paper proposes a multiphysics simulation method of LW propagation with the PZTs under temperature effect. The effect of temperature on LW propagation is considered from two aspects. On the one hand, temperature affects the material parameters of the structure, the adhesive layers and the PZTs. On the other hand, it is considered that the thermal stress caused by the inconsistency of thermal expansion coefficients among the structure, the adhesive layers, and the PZTs affect the piezoelectric constant of the PZTs. Based on the COMSOL Multiphysics, the mechanic–electric–thermal directly coupling simulation model under temperature effect is established. The simulation model consists of two steps. In the first step, the thermal-mechanic coupling is carried out to calculate the thermal stress, and the thermal stress effect is introduced into the piezoelectric constant model. In the second step, mechanic–electric coupling is carried out to simulate LW propagation, which considers the piezoelectric effect of the PZTs for the LW excitation and reception. The simulation results at −20 °C to 60 °C are obtained and compared to the experiment. The results show that the A0 and S0 mode of simulation signals match well with the experimental measurements. Additionally, the effect of temperature on LW propagation is consistent between simulation and experiment; that is, the amplitude increases, and the phase velocity decreases with the increment of temperature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper comprehensively investigates the complex interaction between ultrasonic guided waves and local structural discontinuities, such as damages, through highly sensitive features: so-called wave damage interaction coefficients (WDICs). These WDICs are unique for each structural discontinuity and depend solely on their characteristics for a given structure and condition. Thus, they can be particularly useful for advanced assessment of lightweight structures in the context of non-destructive evaluation and structural health monitoring. However, the practical application of WDICs entails significant difficulties due to their sensitivity and complex patterns. Therefore, this study attempts to guide researchers and practitioners in the estimation of WDICs from numerical simulations and physical experiments. Detailed investigations are made for an aluminum host plate modified by artificial structural discontinuities, i.e., surface-bonded steel sheets. The numerical simulations are performed to predict WDICs and study sensitivities using a sophisticated finite element model. The experimental setup uses piezoelectric transducers to excite guided waves in the host plate. A single scanning laser Doppler vibrometer measures the scattered guided waves caused by the surface-bonded steel sheets, and the resulting WDICs with possible influences are investigated. In both cases, the orientation and thickness of the attached steel sheets were varied to create 12 different damage scenarios. In general, the comparison between numerical and experimental WDICs show good agreement. This underpins the applicability of the general methodology for simulating and measuring WDICs over all scenarios. Furthermore, the WDIC scattering patterns reveal a clear dependency of the peaks in the back-scattered reflections for both the numerical and experimental amplitude coefficients on the damage orientation, basically following the law of reflection. However, some discrepancies between both studies were observed. Numerical sensitivity analysis identified the adhesive layer as one reason for such differences. Additionally, misalignment errors in the experimental measurements were also found to affect WDICs. Therefore, an improved baseline subtraction method is proposed, which clearly enhances the experimental WDICs. Finally, an experimental sensitivity study of WDICs for selected sensing radii revealed only a minor influence. All these investigations were made for the amplitude as well as the phase representation of WDICs. Thus, these findings may open the way to future research and development of techniques employing WDICs for advanced applications of non-destructive evaluation and structural health monitoring. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the use of a phase-sensitive optical time-domain reflectometry (ϕ-OTDR) sensor for the detection of the Lamb waves excited by a piezoelectric transducer in an aluminum plate, is investigated. The system is shown to detect and resolve the Lamb wave in distinct regions of the plate, opening the possibility of realizing structural health monitoring (SHM) and damage detection using a single optical fiber attached to the structure. The system also reveals the variations in the Lamb wave resulting from a change in the load conditions of the plate. The same optical fiber used to detect the Lamb waves has also been employed to realize distributed strain measurements using a Brillouin scattering system. The method can be potentially used to replace conventional SHM sensors such as strain gauges and PZT transducers, with the advantage of offering several sensing points using a single fiber. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While the active ultrasonic method is an attractive structural health monitoring (SHM) technology, many practical issues such as weight of transducers and cables, energy consumption, reliability and cost of implementation are restraining its application. To overcome these challenges, an active ultrasonic SHM technology enabled by a direct-write transducer (DWT) array and edge computing process is proposed in this work. The operation feasibility of the monitoring function is demonstrated with Lamb wave excited and detected by a linear DWT array fabricated in situ from piezoelectric P(VDF-TrFE) polymer coating on an aluminum alloy plate with a simulated defect. The DWT array features lightweight, small profile, high conformability, and implementation scalability, whilst the edge-computing circuit dedicatedly designed for the active ultrasonic SHM is able to perform signal processing at the sensor nodes before wirelessly transmitting the data to a remote host device. The successful implementation of edge-computing processes is able to greatly decrease the amount of data to be transferred by 331 times and decrease the total energy consumption for the wireless module by 224 times. The results and analyses show that the combination of the piezoelectric DWT and edge-computing process provides a promising technical solution for realizing practical wireless active ultrasonic SHM system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work presents a method to determine the type of Lamb mode (antisymmetric or symmetric) that propagates through a lithium-ion pouch cell. To determine the type of mode and the group velocity at a specific frequency, two- and three-transducer setups were created. For these setups, it is important that all transducers have the same polarization direction. Two transducers are affixed to the center of the cell at a distance of several centimeters from each other so that the group velocity can be determined. Using cross-correlation, the group velocity of the emerging mode can be calculated. The measurement setup and the processing method was first validated with experiments on acrylic glass and aluminum plates. The measurements were supported with FEM simulations and a numerically calculated model. The output voltages of the receiving piezo-elements obtained in the FEM simulation are in agreement with the underlying theories. The phase shift, which results from the output voltage of the piezo-elements mounted one above the other on different sides of the plate, shows the type of mode. The results of the experimental determination of the Lamb mode that propagates through a lithium-ion pouch cell were validated with a numerically calculated multi-layer model and therefore validate this novel experimental approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fundamental circumferential shear horizontal (CSH0) wave is of practical importance in monitoring corrosion defects in large-diameter pipes due to its virtually non-dispersive characteristics. However, so far, there have been limited CSH0 wave transducers which can be used to constitute a structural health monitoring (SHM) system for pipes. Moreover, the CSH0 wave’s capability of sizing the corrosion-like defect has not yet been confirmed by experiments. In this work, firstly, the mechanism of exciting CSH waves was analyzed. A method based on our previously developed bidirectional SH wave piezoelectric transducers was then proposed to excite the pure CSH0 mode and first order circumferential shear horizontal (CSH1) mode. Both finite element simulations and experiments show that the bidirectional transducer is capable of exciting pure CSH0 mode traveling in both circumferential directions of a 1-mm thick steel pipe from 100 to 300 kHz. Moreover, this transducer can also serve a sensor to detect CSH0 mode only by filtering circumferential Lamb waves over a wide frequency range from 100 to 450 kHz. After that, a method of sizing a rectangular notch defect by using CSH0 wave was proposed. Experiments on an 11-mm thick steel pipe show that the depth and circumferential extent of a notch can be accurately determined by using the proposed method. Finally, experiments were performed to investigate the reflection and transmission characteristics of CSH0 and CSH1 waves from notches with different depths. It was found that transmission coefficients of CSH0 mode decrease with the increasing of notch depth, which indicates that it is possible to monitor the depth change of corrosion defects by using CSH0 wave. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ultrasonic guided waves provide unique capabilities for the structural health monitoring of plate-like structures. They can detect and locate various types of material degradation through the interaction of shear-horizontal (SH) waves and Lamb waves with the material. Magnetostrictive transducers (MSTs) can be used to generate and receive both SH and Lamb waves and yet their characteristics have not been thoroughly studied, certainly not on par with piezoelectric transducers. A series of multiphysics simulations of the MST/plate system is conducted to investigate the characteristics of MSTs that affect guided wave generation and reception. The results are presented in the vein of showing the flexibility that MSTs provide for guided waves in a diverse range of applications. In addition to studying characteristics of the MST components (i.e., the magnetostrictive layer, meander electric coil, and biased magnetic field), single-sided and double-sided MSTs are compared for preferential wave mode generation. The wave mode control principle is based on the activation line for phase velocity dispersion curves, whose slope is the wavelength, which is dictated by the meander coil spacing. A double-sided MST with in-phase signals preferentially excites symmetric SH and Lamb modes, while a double-sided MST with out-of-phase signals preferentially excites antisymmetric SH and Lamb modes. All attempted single-mode actuations with double-sided MSTs were successful, with the SH3 mode actuated at 922 kHz in a 6-mm-thick plate being the highest frequency. Additionally, the results show that increasing the number of turns in the meander coil enhances the sensitivity of the MST as a receiver and substantially reduces the frequency bandwidth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The computer modelling of condition monitoring sensors can aide in their development, improve their performance, and allow for the analysis of sensor impact on component operation. This article details the development of a COMSOL model for a guided wave-based temperature monitoring system, with a view to using the technology in the future for the temperature monitoring of nozzle guide vanes, found in the hot section of aeroengines. The model is based on an experimental test system that acts as a method of validation for the model. Piezoelectric wedge transducers were used to excite the S 0 Lamb wave mode in an aluminium plate, which was temperature controlled using a hot plate. Time of flight measurements were carried out in MATLAB and used to calculate group velocity. The results were compared to theoretical wave velocities extracted from dispersion curves. The assembly and validation of such a model can aide in the future development of guided wave based sensor systems, and the methods provided can act as a guide for building similar COMSOL models. The results show that the model is in good agreement with the experimental equivalent, which is also in line with theoretical predictions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers (CFRP) has become, recently, in a promising methodology for the field of Non-Destructive Inspection (NDI), specially based on Ultrasonic Guided Waves (UGW), particularly Lamb waves using Piezoelectric Transducers (PZT). However, the Environmental and Operational Conditions (EOC) perform an important role on the physical characteristics of the waves, mainly the temperature. Some of these effects are phase shifting, amplitude changes and time of flight (ToF) variations. In this paper, a compensation method for evaluating and compensating the effects of the temperature is carried out, performing a data-driven methodology to calculate the features from a dataset of typical temperature values obtained from a thermoset matrix pristine plate, with a transducer network attached. In addition, the methodology is tested on the same sample after an impact damage is carried out on it, using RAPID (Reconstruction Algorithm for Probabilistic Inspection of Damage) and its geometrical variant (RAPID-G) to calculate the location of the damage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the paper, the results of production of Ag inkjet printed interdigital transducers to the acoustic delay line based on Y-cut X-propagation direction of lithium niobate plate for the frequency range from 1 to 14 MHz are presented. Additionally, morphological, structural, and electro-physical characteristics of the obtained electrodes were investigated. Mathematical modeling of the excitation of acoustic waves by these electrode structures was carried out. Comparison of the theoretical results with experimental ones showed their qualitative and quantitative coincidences. It was shown that conventional inkjet printing can replace the complex photolithographic method for production of interdigital transducers for acoustic delay lines working up to 14 MHz. The resulting electrode structures make it possible to efficiently excite acoustic waves with a high value of electromechanical coupling coefficient in piezoelectric plates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Piezoelectric transducers are convenient enablers for generating and receiving Lamb waves for damage detection. Fatigue cracks are one of the most common causes for the failure of metallic structures. Increasing emphasis on the integrity of critical structures creates an urgent need to monitor structures and to detect cracks at an early stage to prevent catastrophic failures. This paper presents a two-dimensional (2D) cross-correlation imaging technique that can not only detect a fatigue crack but can also precisely image the fatigue cracks in metallic structures. The imaging method was based on the cross-correlation algorithm that uses incident waves and the crack-scattered waves of all directions to generate the crack image. Fatigue testing for crack generation was then conducted in both an aluminum plate and a stainless-steel plate. Piezoelectric wafer transducer was used to actuate the interrogating Lamb wave. To obtain the scattered waves as well as the incident waves, a scanning laser Doppler vibrometer was adopted for acquiring time-space multidimensional wavefield, followed with frequency-wavenumber processing. The proof-of-concept study was conducted in an aluminum plate with a hairline fatigue crack. A frequency-wavenumber filtering method was used to obtain the incident wave and the scattered wave wavefields for the cross-correlation imaging. After this, the imaging method was applied to evaluate cracks on a stainless-steel plate generated during fatigue loading tests. The presented imaging method showed successful inspection and quantification results of the crack and its growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A tactile position sensing system based on the sensing of acoustic waves and analyzing with artificial intelligence is proposed. The system comprises a thin steel plate with multiple piezoelectric transducers attached to the underside, to excite and detect Lamb waves (or plate waves). A data acquisition and control system synchronizes the wave excitation and detection and records the transducer signals. When the steel plate is touched by a finger, the waveform signals are perturbed by wave absorption and diffraction effects, and the corresponding changes in the output signal waveforms are sent to a convolutional neural network (CNN) model to predict the x- and y-coordinates of the finger contact position on the sensing surface. The CNN model is trained by using the experimental waveform data collected using an artificial finger carried by a three-axis motorized stage. The trained model is then used in a series of tactile sensing experiments performed using a human finger. The experimental results show that the proposed touch sensing system has an accuracy of more than 95%, a spatial resolution of 1 × 1 cm2, and a response time of 60 ms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Analytical modelling is an efficient approach to estimate the directivity of a transducer generating guided waves in the research field of ultrasonic non-destructive testing of the large and complex structures due to its short processing time as compared to the numerical modelling and experimental techniques. The wave patterns or the amplitude variations along the region of ultrasonic transducer itself depend on its behavior, excitation frequency, and the type of propagating wave mode. Depending on the wave-pattern of a propagating wave mode, the appropriate value of the amplitude correction factor must be multiplied to the amplitudes of the excitation signal for the accurate evaluation of directivity pattern of the ultrasonic transducers generating guided waves in analytical modelling. The objective of this work is to analyse the wave patterns under the region of macro-fiber composite (MFC) transducer to improve the accuracy of a previously developed analytical model for the prediction of directivity patterns. Firstly, the amplitude correction factor based on the wave patterns under the region of P1-type MFC (MFC-2814) transducer at two different frequencies (80 kHz, 3 periods and 220 kHz, 3 period) glued on 2 mm Al alloy plate has been estimated analytically in the case of an asymmetric (A0) guided Lamb wave. The validation of analytically estimated amplitude correction factor is performed by a proposed experimental method that allows analyzing the behaviour of MFC transducer under its region by gluing MFC on bottom surface and scanning the receiver on the top surface of the sample. Later on, the estimated amplitude correction factor is included in the previously developed 2D analytical model for the improvement in the directivity patterns of the A0 mode. The modified analytical model shows a significant improvement in the directivity pattern of the A0 wave mode in comparison to the results obtained by the previous model without considering the proper wave patterns. The results reveal that errors between the directivity estimated by the present modified 2D analytical model and experimental investigation are reduced by more than 58% in comparison to the previously developed analytical model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a wavenumber–searching method based on time-domain compensation is proposed to obtain the wavenumber of the Lamb wave array received signal. In the proposed method, the time-domain sampling signal of the linear piezoelectric transducer (PZT) sensor array is converted into a spatial sampling signal using the searching wavenumber. The two–dimensional time-spatial-domain Lamb wave received signal of the linear PZT sensor array is then converted into a one-dimensional synthesized spatial sampling signal. Further, the sum of squared errors between the synthesized spatial sampling signal and its Morlet wavelet fitting signal is calculated at each searching wavenumber. Finally, the wavenumber of the Lamb wave array received signal is obtained as the searching wavenumber corresponding to the minimum error. This method was validated on a 2024-T3 aluminum alloy. The validation results showed that the proposed method can successfully obtain the wavenumber of the Lamb wave array received signal, whose spatial sampling rate does not satisfy the Nyquist sampling theorem; the wavenumber error does not exceed 2.2 rad/m. Damage localization based on the proposed method was also validated on a carbon fiber composite laminate plate, and the maximum damage localization error was no more than 2.11 cm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fatigue cracks are one of the common failure types of key aircraft components, and they are the focus of prognostics and health management (PHM) systems. Monitoring and prediction of fatigue cracks show great application potential and economic benefit in shortening aircraft downtime, prolonging service life, and enhancing maintenance. However, the fatigue crack growth process is a non-linear non-Gaussian dynamic stochastic process, which involves a variety of uncertainties. Actual crack initiation and growth sometimes deviate from the results of fracture mechanics analysis. The Lamb wave-particle filter (LW-PF) fatigue-crack-life prediction based on piezoelectric transducer (PZT) sensors has the advantages of simple modeling and on-line prediction, making it suitable for engineering applications. Although the resampling algorithm of the standard particle filter (PF) can solve the degradation problem, the discretization error still exists. To alleviate the accuracy decrease caused by the discretization error, a Lamb wave-minimum sampling variance particle filter (LW-MSVPF)-based fatigue crack life prediction method is proposed and validated by fatigue test of the attachment lug in this paper. Sampling variance (SV) is used as a quantitative index to analyze the difference of particle distribution before and after resampling. Compared with the LW-PF method, LW-MSVPF can increase the prediction accuracy with the same computational cost. By using the minimum sampling variance (MSV) resampling method, the original particle distribution is retained to a maximum degree, and the discretization error is significantly reduced. Furthermore, LW-MSVPF maintains the characteristic of dimensional freedom, which means a broader application in on-line prognosis for more complex structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]