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Distributed acoustic sensing (DAS) is a promising technology for seismic data acquisition, particularly in downhole applications. However, downhole DAS measurements can be affected by the deployment method of the fibre-optic cable. These effects were explored in a field trial in two wells (one vertical and one deviated) drilled at the Otway International Test Centre. The trial in the vertical well shows that (1) fibre-optic cables cemented behind the casing provide data of the highest quality due to the best coupling to the formation, and (2) tubing-conveyed cable shows only slightly weaker coupling, but the data quality can be severely degraded by source-generated noise. A cable loosely suspended in the deviated well provided data quality comparable to that of the cemented DAS cable. To better understand the nature of the observed effects, the field experiments were supplemented by numerical modelling with a 1.5D full wave reflectivity algorithm (3D wave propagation in a 1D model), where cement, casing and wellbore were represented by infinite vertical layers. The results show that (1) a cement layer has only a slight effect (

Seismic velocities and elastic moduli of rocks are known to vary significantly with applied stress, which indicates that these materials exhibit nonlinear elasticity. Monochromatic waves in nonlinear elastic media are known to generate higher harmonics and combinational frequencies. Such effects have the potential to be used for broadening the frequency band of seismic sources, characterization of the subsurface, and safety monitoring of civil engineering infrastructure. However, knowledge on nonlinear seismic effects is still scarce, which impedes the development of their practical applications. To explore the potential of nonlinear seismology, we performed three experiments: two in the field and one in the laboratory. The first field experiment used two vibroseis sources generating signals with two different monochromatic frequencies. The second field experiment used a surface orbital vibrator with two eccentric motors working at different frequencies. In both experiments, the generated wavefield was recorded in a borehole using a fiber-optic distributed acoustic sensing cable. Both experiments showed combinational frequencies, harmonics, and other intermodulation products of the fundamental frequencies both on the surface and at depth. Laboratory experiments replicated the setup of the field test with vibroseis sources and showed similar nonlinear combinations of fundamental frequencies. Amplitudes of the nonlinear signals observed in the laboratory showed variation with the saturating fluid. These results confirm that nonlinear components of the wavefield propagate as body waves, are likely to generate within rock formations, and can be potentially used for reservoir fluid characterization.

Monitoring changes of formation properties along the well bore associated with the presence of carbon dioxide can be important for both tracking the plume inside of the primary containment and detecting leakage into the zone located above the reservoir. This can be achieved with time lapse wireline logging, but this approach requires well intervention and is not always possible. If the well is permanently instrumented with an optical fibre, it can be used as a distributed seismic receiver array to detect gas behind the casing by monitoring changes in amplitude of the seismic waves generated by active or passive seismic sources. Previous research showed the efficacy of this technique using continuous seismic sources. The Stage 3 Otway Project presented an opportunity to test this technique using passive seismic recording, as downhole fibre-optic arrays recorded numerous regional earthquakes over the period of nearly 2 years before, during, and after CO2 injection. Analysis of P-wave amplitudes extracted from these downhole gathers shows a consistent amplitude anomaly at the injection level, visible in all events that occurred after the start of injection. This indicates that the anomaly is caused by changes in elastic properties in the reservoir caused by CO2 saturation. However, extracted amplitudes show significant variability between earthquakes even without subsurface changes; thus, multiple events are required to distinguish the time-lapse anomaly from time-lapse noise. Ubiquity of these events even in a tectonically quiet region (such as Australia) makes this technique a viable and cost-effective option for downhole monitoring.