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A substantial part of the valuable water is wasted in form of conveyance losses in earthen watercourses. To assess the effect of watercourses improvement on water availability and productivity, ten watercourses were selected randomly. Out of which, five improved and other five were found unimproved. Water losses in both watercourses were measured to find water saving from improved watercourses. Conveyance losses were measured in improved and unimproved watercourses by current meter and cutthroat flume, respectively. Farmers were interviewed to find out the effect of watercourse improvement on crop productivity and water management practices using questionnaire proforma. The losses in five improved watercourses (lined sections) were 9, 28, 5, 11 and 20% per 1000 meter, respectively while that of unlined sections of the same watercourses were 23, 30, 50 and 21 % per 1000 m, respectively. Losses in unimproved watercourses were 27, 62, 55, 55 and 40 % per 1000 m, respectively. The conveyance efficiencies of five improved watercourses (lined sections) were 91, 72, 95, 89 and 80 % per 1000 m, respectively while that of unlined sections were 77, 70, 50 and 79 % 1000 m, respectively. The conveyance efficiencies of unimproved watercourses were 73, 37, 45, 45 and 60 % 1000 m, respectively. Based on the results, it can be concluded that watercourse improvement caused significant effect on irrigation water and it is therefore justified from economic perspectives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

About two-third of the annual precipitation in Skardu occurs during the winter months (December to April). In general, monsoon period is dry, and only 18% of total annual precipitation occurs during the months of July-October. Burgay watershed is situated upstream of Satpara Dam. Water from this watershed is distributed among the communities according to historically agreed distribution patterns. Water availability vary from season to season. The objective of the instant study was to assess the glaciers/snow water dependence of agriculture activities which have implications for livelihood of the communities. The data collection including flow discharge measurement out of the watershed was regularly measured during September 2015 to November 2015 and March 2016 to September 2016. The results show that during the winter months (November, December, January, February, March and April) flow discharge was relatively low that ranged from 0.76 to 0.82 cfs. In summer months (May, June, July and August) the major flow is generated by snow/glacier melt. The glacier melt increases with increase in air temperature and maximum flow discharge of 31.25cfs was observed during the month of June and then decreases with decrease in air temperature. In general, the snow/glacier melt was the major contributor (79%) during the summer months and spring water contribution was 21%. However, in winter months only spring water is available for drinking and domestic use and hardly any water is available to meet irrigation needs. Based on crop water requirement; severe water shortage estimated during the months of March and April to the extent of 3.12 and 6.87 cfs respectively for irrigating the existing cultivated area. These results show that agriculture in Burgay watershed is highly dependent on snow/glacier melt. The study concludes that agrarian economy of the Burgay watershed is highly dependent on glacier/snow and farmers face sever water shortage at the time of crops sowing in March/April when glacier/snow water is not available. It is therefore recommended to construct water storages at community as well as at farm level as well considering lifting of ground water or river water to meet irrigation water requirements at the crops sowing period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agriculture consumes more water than any other human activity. In Pakistan, the contribution of irrigated agriculture is more than 90%, thus the sustainable water supply to meet the food and fibre demand of the ever increasing population is a big challenge. Increase in crop water productivity (CWP) is one of the most important options for sustainable use of water resources in semi-arid environment. A field study was conducted during Rabi 2010-11 and Kharif 2011 crop seasons to compare the CWP of main crops (wheat, sugarcane, maize and tomato) under public and civil canal irrigation systems in Peshawar Valley. For this purpose, 18 farms were selected under public canal system and 13 under civil canal systems. Results revealed that average CWP of wheat, maize, sugarcane and tomato was 0.96, 1.11, 3.31, 3.61 kg m-3 under public and 0.90, 0.77, 2.36, 2.98 kg m-3, under civil system, respectively. In public canal system, the average CWP of the selected crops was 7, 40, 44 and 21% higher than civil canal system, respectively. Low CWP in civil canal system was mainly attributed to over irrigation (because of high water allowance). Quantitative analysis of the yield per unit volume of water applied was carried out using dummy-regression model. The difference in means for maize, sugarcane and tomato crop was found highly significant while in case of wheat it was non-significant. This study concludes that the public system remained more productive with high CWP at farm level for all the major crops. However, there is a great potential for increasing CWP under civil system by rationalizing the water allowance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A well maintained subsurface tile drainage system plays an important role in the reclamation of waterlogged and saline area as well as improves crop productivity. A field study was conducted to evaluate the performance of subsurface tile drainage system during the years 1998 and 2011 in terms of depth to water table from the ground surface, drainage coefficient hydraulic conductivity and yield of major crops. The system was installed under Swabi Salinity Control and Reclamation Project (SCARP) in July, 1997 in the North-West of Pakistan. The study area is being drained by nine subsurface tile drains spaced 100 to 150 m and length ranged from 500 to 700 m at design depth of 1.5 m from the ground surface. Depth to water table and discharge of tile drains were measured on a weekly basis, while yields of major crops were recorded at harvest stage. Average depth to water table from ground surface ranged from 1.0 to 1.6 m and 0.8 to 1.2 m during the study periods 1998 and 2011 respectively. The water table was slightly (8%) higher in 2011 as compared with 1998 due to blockage of half of the laterals. Sugarcane and rice crops were not affected by the re-emerging water logging during 2011 due to blockage of tile drains while on the other hand wheat and maize were found sensitive to water logging as there yields were 42 and 9% lower under shallower water table condition. The overall mean drainage coefficient of 1998 was 1.65 mm day-1, while in 2011 it decreased to 0.7 and 1.3 mm day-1 in partially blocked and unblocked tile drains command area due to blockage of some of the tile drains. An average hydraulic conductivity before the project (1995) was 0.79 m day-1 and it increased to 1.31 m day-1 in 1998 and showed a further increase to 1.71 m day-1 in 2011. It can be concluded that the major goals of the installation of singular subsurface pipe drainage system have been achieved during the early years after completion of the project as the project was successful in lowering the water table and increasing crop yield but the long term performance was adversely affected by improper maintenance of the main drain, subsurface tile drains and plantation of poplar (Poplus nigra) trees across the laterals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Field experiments were conducted at the research farm of The University of Agriculture Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan during 2009-2010 and 2010-2011, to study the effect of tillage practices and sowing methods on emergence, number of tillers, plant height, spike length,and harvest index of wheat under Randomize Complete Block Design (RCBD) with split plot arrangement replicated fourtimes. Tillage practices consisted of Tine Cultivator twice (TC-2), Chisel plow followed by rotavator (CR), Mouldboard plow followed by rotavator (MR), Disc plow followed by rotavator (DR) and Tine Cultivator followed by rotavator(TCR) assigned to main plots, while sowing methods included broadcast (BC) and drilling, (Single box seed drill (SD) and Combined drill (CD) assigned to sub plots. Statistical analysis of the two year data revealed that tillage practices had significant effect on number of tillers, and non significant effect on emergence, plant height, spike length and harvest index. Similarly the effect of sowing methods was significant for emergence, number of tillers, spike length and harvest index. The data revealed that maximum emergence m-2 number of tillersm-2 and harvest index was recorded in the plots tilled with tillage implements followed by rotavator as compared to the sole used of tine cultivator twice (TC-2). Similarly sowing by drills produced maximum emergence m-2, number of tillers m-2, spike length and harvest index (%) as compared to broadcasting. It is concluded from the results that tillage implements followed by rotavator combination performed well and should be used for tillage practices and sowing by drill method should be used to improve emergence, number of tillers, spike length and harvest index of wheat in arid environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]