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The exposition to lead in the Antiquity is one of the first environmental health risks in the history of the mankind. In the ancient cultures of Egypt, Crete and Sumer there was no reports of an important exposition to this metal. The first clinical data is described in the Corpus Hipocraticcus, however was Nicandrus of Colophon the first to make a thorough description of the clinical manifestations of this disease. There was an increase in the exposition to this metal in times of the Roman empire and even some researchers propose that Julius Cesar and Octavio had clinical manifestations associated with lead poisoning. Paul of Aegina in the 7th century (a.C.) describes the first epidemic associated with lead intoxication, however in the Middle Ages the use of lead decrease until the Renaissance period in which lead poisoning affects mostly painters, metal-smithers and miners. Some studies done in the ice-layers of Greenland showed that the environmental pollution by lead during the Roman empire and the Renaissance was important.

Micro-albuminuria is considered an early marker of glomerular injury in patients with diabetes but it has yet to be determined whether testing for markers of tubular injury can also identify people who are at risk of progressive renal disease.To evaluate markers of tubular injury and renal characteristics in a sample of community treated type 2 diabetic subjects.We carry-out an assessment of a group of community diabetic patients, anthropometric measures, creatinine clearance, HbA1c, lipid profile, the mean fast serum glucose levels, albuminuria and α1-microglobulin (α1M) urine excretion were evaluated.From 95 included patients, 45.2% had α1M urinary excretion ≥ 10 μg/gCr, 23.1% micro-albuminuria, 9.6% macroalbuminuria and 27.2% had a GFR60 mL/min. The most important risk factor associated with a1M excretion was fasting glucose level (OR 4.3, 95IC 1.7-11.1 p = 0.001); HbA1c ≥ 8% and age were the most important risk factors associated with GFR ≤ 60 mL/min. Most of patients had uncontrolled glucose levels and 45.1% patients with albuminuria were not receiving any drug with anti-proteinuric effects.Fasting glucose levels was the most important risk factor associated with tubular dysfunction; non-albuminuric presentation of CKD defined as GFR60 mL/min was frequent in our population, so is necessary to implement different strategies for surveillance in patients with type 2 diabetes aiming to delay progression to CKD.

OBJECTIVE. To examine the prevalence of abnormal thyroid function tests and positive anti-thyroid antibodies in two Central Mexican cities. MATERIAL AND METHODS. Subjects 18 to 70 years old were randomly selected to participate in this survey. A questionnaire was given and blood samples were taken to measure TSH and free T4 levels as well as anti-TPO and anti- Tg antibodies. RESULTS. The mean TSH level in subjects without existing thyroid disease was 1.72 mIU/L; 0.64 and 3.74 mIU/L were the 2.5th and 97.5th percentiles. The mean free T4 level was 1.02 ng/dL, and the 2.5th and 97.5th percentiles were 0.78 and 1.31 ng/dL, respectively. There was a 2.5% prevalence of former diagnosed thyroid diseases, 3.9% of individuals were sub-hypo, and 1.1% had overt hypothyroidism. Total hypothyroidism prevalence was 7.48% (when we considered TSH levels greater than 4.5 mIU/L), but it was 11.03% when diagnosed with TSH values greater than 3.5 mIU/L. Factors associated with hypothyroidism were older age, positive family background of thyroid disease, and positive anti- TPO and anti-Tg antibodies. Subclinical and overt hyperthyroidism were found in 1.7% of participants. CONCLUSIONS. Abnormal thyroid function test prevalence in this population was high, but few participants were aware of having a thyroid disease. The prevalence of positive anti-thyroid antibodies was high. More studies are necessary to elucidate the effects of thyroid abnormalities on other aspects of health status and quality of life.

Arsenic (As) is one of the most ubiquitous elements in nature, and a prolonged exposure has been associated with an increase in the risk of cancer, diabetes mellitus, hypertension and cardiovascular disease. There are few studies addressing the effects of As on albuminuria, tubular injury and biochemical variables as uric acid. AIM. To analyze the association between urinary As levels, albuminuria, and al-microglobulin as marker of tubular injury.This is a cross-sectional, and comparative study done in 5 communities localized close to Queretaro City. Subjects with no antecedents of renal disease, diabetes, hypertension, or industrial exposure to As were included. A questionnaire about risk factors for arsenic exposure was done, blood was taken for biochemical analysis and a spot urine sample was collected for albumin, alpha1-microglobulin, and As measurements.A total of 90 adult persons were included with no antecedents of renal disease, diabetes or hypertension; the mean age was 40.9 +/- 12.9 years and the median for urinary As levels was 15 microg/gr Cr (range 0.56-89.2 microg/gr Cr), 10 (11.1%) persons had critical levels50 microg/gr Cr. Age more than 50 years old [OR 2.48 IC95 (0.9-6.6)] and place of residence were the most important risk factors associated with higher levels of As. There was association between urinary As levels and al-microglobulin urinary excretion (r2 = 0.07, p = 0.01) but not with albuminuria or other biochemical variables.This is the first study in Mexico to show an association between As and urinary excretion of al-microglobulin as marker of early renal injury. We did not found association with albuminuria or other serum biochemical variables. Arsenic may be considered as a risk factor for tubular injury.