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Numerous x-ray diagnostics at the Z facility, time-resolved and time-integrated, would benefit from a local calibrated x-ray source. For many years, Z has used low-power Manson x-ray sources to provide some characterization information for components of Z diagnostics below 30 keV. More recently, we have acquired TruFocus x-ray sources, which operate at voltages up to 100 kV depending on the anode material and model. These DC sources have demonstrated good stability and repeatability. Absolute calibrations of either sources or detectors usually involve another calibrated detector from another source, which has not been readily available locally. Therefore, we have adopted the strategy of characterizing a sensitive semiconductor diode detector by controlling or inferring the active volume. This characterized detector is then used to scale the Manson x-ray spectral shape as measured by an Amptek energy-resolving detector. The result agrees well with the modeled source spectrum. We can apply this technique to the TruFocus as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The single-line-of-sight time-resolved x-ray imager (SLOS-TRXI), a fast-gated x-ray imager used for capturing x-ray self-emission in inertial confinement fusion experiments on OMEGA, has been upgraded and characterized. SLOS-TRXI combines an electron-dilation imager and a hybrid complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (hCMOS) sensor to capture multiple gated frames on a single line of sight with a temporal resolution of ∼40 ps and a spatial resolution of 10 µm. The original hCMOS sensor with four frames was replaced with a newer-generation hCMOS sensor having eight frames. Gate characterizations of both the sensor and the entire SLOS-TRXI diagnostic were performed using ∼10-ps FWHM visible (2ω) and UV (4ω) short-pulse lasers, respectively. A stepped echelon was used to generate a train of five UV laser pulses having an interpulse separation of 30 ± 3 ps. Characterization results of the hCMOS gating (2.28 ± 0.02-ns FWHM on average) and a temporal resolution of the upgraded SLOS-TRXI (34 ± 4-ps FWHM on average) are presented. A temporal magnification for the electron-dilation imager between 40 and 60 was inferred from the characterization results. The spatial resolution of the upgraded SLOS-TRXI remains the same in light of this work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work describes the implementation of polarized neutron imaging capabilities at the neutron and x-ray tomograph (NeXT) imaging station of the Institut Laue Langevin. This development enhances the capacity of this instrument to study advanced magnetic materials, which are crucial in a variety of engineering applications. Here, the feasibility of polarized neutron imaging at NeXT is demonstrated by visualizing the magnetic field generated by a simple bar magnet. The use of a double-crystal monochromator for wavelength-resolved imaging is also shown to enable both quantitative and qualitative analyses of magnetic materials. This is demonstrated through the determination of magnetization strength in a sample of electric steel (FeSi) in addition to the distribution of its components. Polarimetric imaging is also implemented for the first time to characterize the magnetic field generated by a current-carrying cylindrical wire. These findings collectively underscore the value of incorporating polarized neutron imaging into the already cutting-edge imaging station. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Synchrotron radiation facilities provide highly polarized x-ray beams across a wide energy range. However, the exact type and degree of polarization vary according to the beamline and experimental setup. To accurately determine the angle and degree of linear polarization, a portable x-ray polarimeter has been developed. This setup consists of a silicon drift detector that rotates around a target made of high-density polyethylene. The imprint generated in the angular distribution of scattered photons from the target at a 90-degree angle between the incident x-rays and detector has been exploited to determine the beam polarization. Measurements were conducted at the GALAXIES beamline of the SOLEIL synchrotron. The expected angular distribution of the scattered photons for a given beam polarization was obtained through simulations using the Geant4 simulation toolkit. An excellent agreement between simulations and the collected data has been obtained, validating the setup and enabling a precise determination of the beam polarization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates three mounting methods—clamping, soldering, and a hybrid clamping–soldering approach—for cryogenically cooled thin diamond crystals crucial to stable operation of X-ray Free Electron Laser (XFEL) systems. While clamping methods exhibit temperature resilience and flexibility, meticulous design is required to prevent stress-induced warping and reduce thermal contact area. Soldering methods offer reliable mechanical and thermal bonding but encounter challenges due to the coefficient of thermal expansion mismatch at cryogenic temperatures. The hybrid method, integrating clamping and soldering with strain relief cuts, effectively mitigates overall distortion caused by mounting and XFEL thermal loads. These findings offer a novel mounting solution for high-performance x-ray optics in XFEL research and applications, ensuring stability and optimal functionality in cryogenic conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An X-pinch load driven by an intense current pulse (> 100 kA in ∼100 ns) can result in the formation of a small radius, runaway compressional micro-pinch. A micro-pinch is characterized by a hot (>1 keV), current-driven (> 100 kA), high-density plasma column (near solid density) with a small neck diameter (1–10 µm), a short axial extent (< 1 mm), and a short duration (≲1 ns). With material pressures often well into the multi-Mbar regime, a micro-pinch plasma often radiates an intense, sub-ns burst of sub-keV to multi-keV x rays. A low-density coronal plasma immediately surrounding the dense plasma neck could potentially shunt current away from the neck and thus reduce the magnetic drive pressure applied to the neck. To study the current distribution in the coronal plasma, a Faraday rotation imaging diagnostic (1064 nm) capable of producing simultaneous high-magnification polarimetric and interferometric images has been developed for the MAIZE facility at the University of Michigan. Designed with a variable magnification (1–10×), this diagnostic achieves a spatial resolution of ∼35 µm, which is useful for resolving the ∼100-μm-scale coronal plasma immediately surrounding the dense core. This system has now been used on a reduced-output MAIZE (100–200 kA, 150 ns) to assess the radial distribution of drive current immediately surrounding the dense micro-pinch neck. The total current enclosed was found to increase as a function of radius, r, from a value of ≈ 50 ± 25 kA at r ≈ 140 µm (at the edge of the dense neck) to a maximal value of ≈ 150 ± 75 kA for r ≥ 225 µm. This corresponds to a peak magnetic drive pressure of ≈ 75 ± 50 kbar at r ≈ 225 µm. The limitations of these measurements are discussed in the paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Benchtop pulsed x-ray systems are commonly used to record dynamic material data on the order of nanoseconds, but pulse timing is often difficult to accurately determine. This study demonstrates that commercially available photodiodes can be used effectively for direct x-ray pulse detection without the need for visible light scintillators. X-ray pulses from four commercially available flash x-ray systems were quantified using one silicon and two indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs) photodiodes. The measured InGaAs pulse durations were strongly dependent on radiation dose in the non-linear operating regime, so the photodiodes were shielded to operate below the 2.5 V non-linear regime threshold. The average pulse duration and pulse arrival time jitter of the photodiodes for each x-ray source were within several nanoseconds with the exception of two sets of measurements that were affected by low instrument sensitivity and electrical noise. These results show that InGaAs photodiodes can be used as effective and repeatable stand-alone timing diagnostics for x-ray pulses as short as 20 ns or less. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present an inversion method capable of robustly unfolding MeV x-ray spectra from filter stack spectrometer (FSS) data without requiring an a priori specification of a spectral shape or arbitrary termination of the algorithm. Our inversion method is based upon the perturbative minimization (PM) algorithm, which has previously been shown to be capable of unfolding x-ray transmission data, albeit for a limited regime in which the x-ray mass attenuation coefficient of the filter material increases monotonically with x-ray energy. Our inversion method improves upon the PM algorithm through regular smoothing of the candidate spectrum and by adding stochasticity to the search. With these additions, the inversion method does not require a physics model for an initial guess, fitting, or user-selected termination of the search. Instead, the only assumption made by the inversion method is that the x-ray spectrum should be near a smooth curve. Testing with synthetic data shows that the inversion method can successfully recover the primary large-scale features of MeV x-ray spectra, including the number of x-rays in energy bins of several-MeV widths to within 10%. Fine-scale features, however, are more difficult to recover accurately. Examples of unfolding experimental FSS data obtained at the Texas Petawatt Laser Facility and the OMEGA EP laser facility are also presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present the development of an experimental platform that can collect four frames of x-ray diffraction data along a single line of sight during laser-driven, dynamic-compression experiments at the National Ignition Facility. The platform is comprised of a diagnostic imager built around ultrafast sensors with a 2-ns integration time, a custom target assembly that serves also to shield the imager, and a 10-ns duration, quasi-monochromatic x-ray source produced by laser-generated plasma. We demonstrate the performance with diffraction data for Pb ramp compressed to 150 GPa and illuminated by a Ge x-ray source that produces ∼7 × 1011, 10.25-keV photons/ns at the 400 μm diameter sample. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of a sample environment for in situ x-ray characterization during metal Electron Beam Powder Bed Fusion (PBF-EB), called MiniMelt, is presented. The design considerations, the features of the equipment, and its implementation at the synchrotron facility PETRA III at Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron, Hamburg, Germany, are described. The equipment is based on the commercially available Freemelt ONE PBF-EB system but has been customized with a unique process chamber to enable real-time synchrotron measurements during the additive manufacturing process. Furthermore, a new unconfined powder bed design to replicate the conditions of the full-scale PBF-EB process is introduced. The first radiography (15 kHz) and diffraction (1 kHz) measurements of PBF-EB with a hot-work tool steel and a Ni-base superalloy, as well as bulk metal melting with the CMSX-4 alloy, using the sample environment are presented. MiniMelt enables time-resolved investigations of the dynamic phenomena taking place during multi-layer PBF-EB, facilitating process understanding and development of advanced process strategies and materials for PBF-EB. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A method for correcting the matrix effect by measuring the intensity of fluorescent radiation and its absorption by the sample material in the same x-ray optical scheme is proposed. The use of a complex secondary Ag–Ge emitter as a primary radiation source provides a low detection limit for a wide range of chemical elements from Ca (Z = 20) to Mo (Z = 42) in the K-series and from Cd (Z = 48) to Bi (Z = 83) in the L-series. To measure the absorption, the radiation of an additional secondary emitter is used, of which the wavelength can be varied in the range from 0.633 to 3.38 Å, depending on the measured impurity. An example of determining the mass fraction of an impurity in a sample of unknown composition prepared from a mixture of state standard samples of aqueous solutions is given. The x-ray optical scheme was assembled on the basis of a portable Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence (EDXRF) spectrometer. The method is designed to study materials with a base consisting of chemical elements with a low atomic number. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present the development of a flexible tape-drive target system to generate and control secondary high-intensity laser-plasma sources. Its adjustable design permits the generation of relativistic MeV particles and x rays at high-intensity (i.e., ≥1 × 1018 W cm−2) laser facilities, at high repetition rates (>1 Hz). The compact and robust structure shows good mechanical stability and a high target placement accuracy (<4 μm RMS). Its compact and flexible design allows for mounting in both the horizontal and vertical planes, which makes it practical for use in cluttered laser-plasma experimental setups. The design permits ∼170° of access on the laser-driver side and 120° of diagnostic access at the rear. A range of adapted apertures have been designed and tested to be easily implemented to the targetry system. The design and performance testing of the tape-drive system in the context of two experiments performed at the COMET laser facility at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and at the Advanced Lasers and Extreme Photonics (ALEPH) facility at Colorado State University are discussed. Experimental data showing that the designed prototype is also able to both generate and focus high-intensity laser-driven protons at high repetition rates are also presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Next-generation synchrotron radiation facilities, such as the Advanced Photon Source Upgrade (APS-U), bring significant advancements in scientific research capabilities, necessitating advanced diagnostic tools. Central to these diagnostics are x-ray wavefront sensors, crucial for preserving beam properties, including brightness, coherence, and stability. This paper presents two novel wavefront sensor prototypes developed at the APS using the coded-mask-based technique. The first is a compact design tailored for specific conditions and adaptability to diverse beamline configurations. The second, an adjustable zoom version, offers flexibility to accommodate a wide range of beam conditions. Both prototypes underwent rigorous testing at the APS 28-ID-B beamline and demonstrated their effectiveness in both absolute wavefront sensing and relative metrology modes. These results highlight their promise in beamline diagnostics, potentially enabling applications such as beamline auto-alignment and real-time wavefront manipulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hard X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (HAXPES) is a powerful tool for investigating the chemical and electronic states of bulk and buried interfaces non-destructively due to its large probing depth. To obtain a much larger probing depth and measure deeper regions than conventional HAXPES, we have developed a high-energy HAXPES (HE-HAXPES) system excited by photon energies up to 30 keV. This system is achieved by combining an applied bias voltage on the sample with a conventional hemispherical electron energy analyzer. By utilizing this system, we successfully observed a Si 1s peak from the bulk-Si substrate underneath the 110-nm-thick SiO2 film at a photon energy of 30 keV. Moreover, the system found that the asymmetrical spectral shape of the Si substrate signal originated from the electronic state, which is upward band bending formed at the interface between the SiO2 film and Si substrate. The HE-HAXPES system, excited by photon energy up to 30 keV, could be a very useful tool to yield genuine insights into the chemical and electronic states in deeply buried regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Daedalus ultrafast x-ray imager is the latest generation in Sandia's hybrid CMOS detector family. With three frames along an identical line of sight, 1 ns minimum integration time, a higher full well than Icarus, and added features, Daedalus brings exciting new capabilities to diagnostic applications in inertial confinement fusion and high energy density science. In this work, we present measurements of time response, dynamic range, spatial uniformity, pixel cross-talk, and absolute x-ray sensitivity using pulsed optical and x-ray sources. We report a measured 1.5 Me− full well, pixel sensitivity at 9.58 × 10−7 V/e−, and an estimate of spatial uniformity at ∼5% across the sensor array. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we report the absolute measurement of the spectral sensitivity of a bilamellar tube x-ray streak camera (XRSC) over the 0.1–10 keV range equipped with a CsI photocathode for Laser MégaJoule (LMJ) fusion experiments. This calibration of the XRSC is performed in static mode by using two multi-anode x-ray generators. Two silicon drift detectors (SDDs) previously calibrated at the Physikalisch–Technische–Bundesanstalt radiometric laboratory are used as secondary standards. Both x-ray generators work with a specific monochromator for radiometric measurements. In the sub-keV region, a 1 m-grazing incidence Rowland geometry monochromator specifically developed to handle LMJ's x-ray camera is used, whereas for higher energies (>2 keV), a double-crystal monochromator is employed. The absolute spectral sensitivity of the XRSC is obtained by comparing the CCD counts of the XRSC output with the output counts in x-ray lines recorded by the SDD. The results obtained below 1.2 keV are, to our knowledge, the first measurements of the spectral sensitivity of an XRSC in the soft x-ray range with a CsI photocathode. Comparison with a model describing the spectral dependence of the sensitivity of the XRSC revealed that measurements obtained in the sub-keV region are greater than expected, whereas they agree with the model above 4.5 keV. There may be several contributors to this behavior, including the grain morphology of the CsI layer and exposure to air. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

X-ray diagnostics are key instruments for understanding the physics behind inertial confinement fusion experiments. We report on the multilayer design optimization for the Toroidal X-ray Imager (TXI), a hard x-rays microscope instrument designed by Commissariat à l'énergie atomique (CEA) and Laboratoire Charles Fabry (LCF) to be installed on the National Ignition Facility. TXI includes six channels designed for three different energy bands centered on 8.7, 13, and 17.5 keV. Each channel is made up of two toroidal mirrors arranged in a Wolter-like configuration. The required field of view is 800 × 400 µm2, and the resolution should be better than 5 µm. In addition, we seek to estimate the spatial distribution of the temperature, which requires no spectral overlap of the different energy bands and a good spectral homogeneity of the image produced. The development of the multilayer coatings was performed in a two-step method. First, the coatings were optimized to obtain proper energy bands. Then, an x-ray tracing code was used to calculate the integrated optical response of each channel and adjust the response of the mirror to fulfill the requirements. To fulfill all the specifications, we propose an original design using a combination of two aperiodic coatings, one with a narrow bandwidth and the other one with a larger bandwidth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pulsed x-rays are crucial for various applications such as radiography, biological effects, and the system-generated electromagnetic pulse effect. X rays with a higher dose rate and a higher total dose can generate more significant radiation effects and more effective radiography. However, most pulsed sub-100 keV x-ray systems with high dose rates operate in the single pulse mode with limited total dose, and most repetitive pulsed x-ray systems have a low dose rate. This paper develops a compact high-current repetitive pulsed x-ray system with a low-impedance diode to generate high dose rate pulsed x-rays with an average energy below 100 keV. A diode with a double-ring cathode is designed and tested to produce uniform pulsed x-rays. In order to investigate the x-ray intensity and the pulse number of repetitions for different anode thicknesses, five typical thicknesses are tested. The experimental results show that this system can operate stably at a repetitive rate of 0.2 Hz with a peak voltage of about 200 kV and a peak current of about 100 kA. The dose rate is about 2.4 × 105 Gy(LiF)/s, and the average x-ray energy is about 55 keV with the 40 µm thick tantalum anode. The x-ray uniformity is better than 2:1 over the measuring plane. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

X-ray free-electron lasers (XFELs) deliver intense x-ray pulses that destroy the sample in a single shot by a Coulomb explosion. Experiments using XFEL pulse trains or the new generation of high-repetition rate XFELs require rapid sample replacement beyond those provided by the systems now used at low repletion-rate XFELs. We describe the development and characterization of a system based on a spinning disk to continuously deliver a solid sample into an XFEL interaction point at very high speeds. We tested our system at the Linac Coherent Light Source and European XFEL hard x-ray nano-focus instruments, employing it to deliver a 25 μm copper foil sample, which can be used as a gain medium for stimulated x-ray emission for the proposed x-ray laser oscillator. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An existing open and modular designed micro X-Ray Computed Tomography (μXRCT) system is extended by a test rig in order to combine mechanical and hydro-mechanical experiments with μXRCT characterization. The aim of the system is to cover the complete resolution range of the underlying μXRCT system in combination with a broad load capacity range. A characteristic feature of the developed setup is that it consists mainly of standard components. This makes the shown test rig potentially interesting for other researchers considering extending an existing μXRCT system with an apparatus for mechanical and hydro-mechanical in situ testing. For the load frame, an uniaxial 10 kN universal testing machine with a digital control system was employed, which was extended by two aligned rotational stages. The uniaxial load capacity is ±3.1 kN and can be combined with torque moments of up to ±15 N m both limited by the used rotational stages. The setup is designed in such a way that different x-ray transparent cells (flow cells, oedometer cells, triaxial cells, etc.) can be integrated to generate three-dimensional stress/strain states as required for porous media research. Three applications demonstrate the possible versatile use of the system. As part of these examples, we show how corresponding x-ray transparent cells are designed and implemented. Finally, we discuss the presented approach's technical advantages and disadvantages and suggest improvements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Beamlines are facilities that produce and deliver highly focused and intense beams of radiation, typically x rays, synchrotron radiation, or neutrons, for scientific research purposes. Millions of dollars are spent annually to maintain and operate these scientific beamlines, oftentimes running continuously between cycles. To reduce human intervention and improve productivity, mechanical sample changers are often commissioned for use. Designing sample changers is difficult because mechanical parts can be bulky, expensive, and challenging to design for instruments with low volume access, high radiation, and cryogenic environments. We present a portable and inexpensive sample changer stick that can hold and manipulate up to four samples, specifically designed for use with cryogenic closed-cycle refrigerators. The sample changer stick enables rapid and efficient exchange of samples without manual intervention, and is compatible with standard sample mounts such as vanadium cans. The sample changer stick includes a motorized rotation and lancing mechanism, which enables the precise positioning of each sample in the neutron beam, while ensuring compatibility with the operating temperatures and vacuum conditions required for closed-cycle refrigerators. The design has been successfully tested at the VISION beamline at the Spallation Neutron Source. The mechanical action and software controls are detailed. The sample changer stick is a valuable tool for scientists working with cryogenic closed-cycle refrigerators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An x-ray imaging scheme using spherically bent crystals was implemented on the Z-machine to image x rays emitted by the hot, dense plasma generated by a Magnetized Liner Inertial Fusion (MagLIF) target. This diagnostic relies on a spherically bent crystal to capture x-ray emission over a narrow spectral range (<15 eV), which is established by a limiting aperture placed on the Rowland circle. The spherical crystal optic provides the necessary high-throughput and large field-of-view required to produce a bright image over the entire, one-cm length of the emitting column of a plasma. The average spatial resolution was measured and determined to be 18 µm for the highest resolution configuration. With this resolution, the radial size of the stagnation column can be accurately determined and radial structures, such as bifurcations in the column, are clearly resolved. The success of the spherical-crystal imager has motivated the implementation of a new, two-crystal configuration for identifying sources of spectral line emission using a differential imaging technique. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Laser-driven x-ray backlighting can be used to image fast dynamic processes like the propagation of laser-driven shock waves in matter. We demonstrate and evaluate the feasibility of operating the JUNGFRAU detector designed by PSI, a direct detecting x-ray detector, in environments with extreme electromagnetic pulses. The electromagnetic pulse-protective housing is specifically designed for this detector and optimized for pump-probe experiments at the Petawatt High-Energy Laser for Heavy Ion EXperiments (PHELIX) facility at the GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung GmbH. The beryllium x-ray entrance window of the protective housing has a high x-ray transmission of 94% at 8 keV. Measurements have shown that the housing simultaneously provides a relative damping of the electromagnetic field on average higher than 1000 in the frequency range of 100 MHz to 5 GHz. The results demonstrate the feasibility of operating digital detectors in experiments where strong electromagnetic pulses are present. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We introduce an innovative instrument designed to investigate fluid-induced fractures under mixed loading conditions, including uniaxial tension and shear stress, in gels and similar soft materials. Equipped with sensors for measuring force, torque, and fluid pressure, the device is tailored for compatibility with x-ray tomography scanners, enabling non-invasive 3D analysis of crack geometries. To showcase its capabilities, we conducted a study examining crack-front segmentation in a hydrogel subjected to air pressure and a combination of tension and shear stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Absolute x-ray ultraviolet diagnostics ensures 2D coverage of the radiation emission region that enables tomographic reconstruction. However, retrieving the local emissivity via tomography remains a challenge due to its ill-posed nature. Tikhonov regularization with smoothness operation generally performs well but tends to over-smooth regions with steep gradients and local structure in the radiation profile and may introduce artifacts. In this paper, a tomography method based on compressive sensing theory with Tikhonov regularization terms is developed. Experimental results on multiple phantom sets show that the proposed method improves the reconstruction accuracy and quality in regions with steep gradients compared with the Tikhonov regularization method and suppresses the unphysical negative emissivity. The analysis of reconstruction uncertainty shows that the dictionary learning process provides more accurate prior information about steep gradients to improve the quality of reconstructed images, and compressive sensing has the denoising capability to reduce the impact of noise. Finally, the method is validated by data from the Sino-UNIted Spherical Tokamak, showing fewer artifacts and more reliable reconstruction images than the earlier method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The High energy Engineering X-ray (HEX) diffraction beamline at the National Synchrotron Light Source II (NSLS-II) at Brookhaven National Lab (BNL) is the first high-energy beamline capable of reaching 200 keV for a monochromatic beam. With the 3 GeV electron beam energy for the NSLS-II ring, only the superconducting wiggler (SCW) producing greater than 4 T peak field can cover these ranges with a sufficient number of photons. The 1.2 m-long HEX-SCW has a period length of 70 mm and a field strength on-axis of 4.3 T. It utilizes no liquid helium, and the vertical aperture size of the electron beam vacuum chamber is 8 mm. Unlike regular undulators/wigglers, there is no standard configuration for the magnetic measurement system for superconducting insertion devices. The NSLS-II Insertion Devices group has developed, in collaboration with the vacuum group, a novel in-vacuum Hall mapper with a 1.75 m in-vacuum linear motor and an in-vacuum flip coil system utilizing many commercial-off-the-shelf products. The measurements were conducted at the BNL, and the device was installed in the ring and commissioned. This paper provides a description of the SCW and its magnetic measurement systems, as well as a brief account of the installation and commissioning efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two camera systems are installed on the DIII-D tokamak at the toroidal positions of 90° (90° system) and 225° (225° system), respectively. The cameras have two types of relay optics, namely, a coherent optical fiber bundle and a periscope system. The periscope system provides absolute intensity calibration stability while sacrificing resolution (10 lp/mm), while the fiber system provides high resolution (16 lp/mm) while sacrificing calibration stability. The periscope is available only for the 90° system. The optics of the 225° system were designed for view stability, repeatability, and easy maintenance. The cameras are located inside optimized neutron, x ray and magnetic shielding in order to reduce electronics damage, reboots, and magnetic and neutron interference, increasing the overall system reliability. An automated filter wheel, providing remote filter change, allows for remote wavelength selection. A software suite automates camera acquisition and data storage, allowing for remote operation and reduced operator involvement. System metadata is used to streamline the data analysis workflow, particularly for intensity calibration. The spatial calibration uses multiple observable wall features, resulting in a reconstruction accuracy ≤2 cm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Implosion symmetry is a key requirement in achieving a robust burning plasma in inertial confinement fusion experiments. In double-shell capsule implosions, we are interested in the shape of the inner shell as it pushes on the fuel. Shape analysis is a popular technique for studying said symmetry during implosion. Combinations of filtering and contour-finding algorithms are studied for their promise in reliably recovering Legendre shape coefficients from synthetic radiographs of double-shell capsules with applied levels of noise. A radial lineout max(slope) method when used on an image pre-filtered with non-local means and a variant of the marching squares algorithm are able to recover p0, p2, and p4 maxslope Legendre shape coefficients with mean pixel discrepancy errors of 2.81 and 3.06, respectively, for the noisy synthetic radiographs we consider. This improves upon prior radial lineout methods paired with Gaussian filtering, which we show to be unreliable and whose performance is dependent on input parameters that are difficult to estimate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fresnel zone plates (FZPs) are circular diffractive elements that operate as a lens for x-rays. They have gained interest in the field of laser-plasma physics due to their ability to achieve higher spatial resolution than pinholes. Their design and implementation are complicated by the fact that a significant amount of the x-rays passing through the FZP will not diffract (zeroth order) and present a background to the measurement. This background can be large and inhomogeneous depending on the geometric setup of the experiment. Here, we present calculations of the diffracted (first order) and un-diffracted (zeroth order) flux profiles, which makes it possible to optimize the contrast between the first order imaging rays and the zeroth order background. Calculations for the implementation of a central block in the FZP, designed to block the zeroth from the entire field of view, are also presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ability of the soft matter interfaces beamline at National Synchrotron Light Source II to access x-ray energy in the tender x-ray regime, i.e., from 2.1 to 5 keV, enables new resonant x-ray scattering studies at the sulfur K-edge and others. We present a new approach to correct data acquired in the tender x-ray regime with a Pilatus3 detector in order to improve the data quality and to correct the various artifacts inherent to hybrid pixel detectors, such as variations in modules' efficiency or noisy detector module junctions. This new flatfielding significantly enhances the data quality and enables detection of weak scattering signals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The usage of muonic x-rays to study elemental properties like nuclear radii ranges back to the seventies. This triggered the pioneering work at the Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI), during the eighties on the Muon-induced x-ray emission (MIXE) technique for a non-destructive assessment of elemental compositions. In recent years, this method has seen a rebirth, improvement, and adoption at most muon facilities around the world. Hereby, the PSI offers unique capabilities with its high-rate continuous muon beam at the Swiss Muon Source (SμS). We report here the decision-making, construction, and commissioning of a dedicated MIXE spectrometer at PSI, the GermanIum Array for Non-destructive Testing (GIANT) setup. Multiple campaigns highlighted the outstanding capabilities of MIXE at PSI, e.g., resolving down to 1 at. % elemental concentrations with as little as 1 h data taking, measuring isotopic ratios for elements from iron to lead, and characterizing gamma rays induced by muon nuclear capture. On-target beam spots were characterized with a dedicated charged particle tracker to be symmetric to 5% with an average σ = 22.80(25) and 14.41(8) mm for 25 and 45 MeV/c, respectively. Advanced analysis of the high-purity germanium signals further allows us to improve energy and timing resolutions to ∼1 keV and 20 ns at 1 MeV, respectively. Within the GIANT setup, an average detector has a photopeak efficiency of ϵ E ̄ = 0.11 % and an energy resolution of σ E ̄ = 0.8 keV at E = 1000 keV. The overall performance of the GIANT setup at SμS allowed us to start a rich user program with archaeological samples, Li-ion battery research, and collaboration with the industry. Future improvements will include a simulation-based analysis and a higher degree of automation, e.g., automatic scans of a series of muon momenta and automatic sample changing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report on the x-ray background rate measured with transition-edge sensors (TES) micro-calorimeters under frequency-domain multiplexing (FDM) readout as a possible technology for future experiments aiming at a direct detection of axion-like particles. Future axion helioscopes will make use of large magnets to convert axions into photons in the keV range and x-ray detectors to observe them. To achieve this, a detector array with high spectral performance and extremely low background is necessary. TES are single-photon, non-dispersive, high-resolution micro-calorimeters and represent a possible candidate for this application. We have been developing x-ray TES micro-calorimeters and an FDM readout technology in the framework of the space-borne x-ray astronomical observatories. We show that the current generation of our detectors is already a promising technology for a possible axion search experiment, having measured an x-ray background rate of 2.2(2) × 10−4 cm−2 s−1 keV−1 with a cryogenic demonstrator not optimized for this specific application. We then make a prospect to further improve the background rate down to the required value (< 1 0 − 7 cm−2 s−1 keV−1) for an axion-search experiment, identifying no fundamental limits to reach such a level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Time-resolved diagnostics are fundamental for x-ray free-electron lasers (FELs). Radio-frequency (RF) transverse deflector structures (TDSs) are typically employed to characterize the temporal properties of the electron beams driving FELs. In this article, we present time-resolved measurements with a resolution below one femtosecond using a C-band RF TDS at SwissFEL, the x-ray FEL facility at the Paul Scherrer Institute in Switzerland. The sub-femtosecond resolution is partially achieved due to an optimized optics setup and fits the expected values, showing a good understanding of our models. Measurements with a sub-femtosecond resolution are of crucial importance for ultra-fast x-ray FEL applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents nanometer-scale production and metrology methods for elliptic-cylindrical x-ray mirrors with an unprecedentedly small tangential radius of curvature of 160 mm. Sub-millimeter-scale figure correction is conducted based on dynamic stencil deposition. The deposition flux through one or two shadow masks is examined by a comparison to a simple model. The masked deposition flux distribution is improved, leading to film thickness profiles that are 50 times sharper in terms of aspect ratio than those obtained using existing differential deposition approaches. Surface roughness deterioration is also effectively suppressed. A 2-mm-long 160-mm-radius mirror is produced with a width of 10 mm and measured using simple interferometry. The results are confirmed by conventional mirror metrology, contact profilometry, and x-ray ptychography. The x-ray focusing profile is diffraction-limited with a 142-nm focus size at a photon energy of 300 eV. The proposed methods have the potential to enhance the ultraprecise fabrication of highly curved mirrors, thus benefiting nanoscale photon-hungry x-ray techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High-energy γ rays generated from inertial confinement fusion (ICF) experiments have become an important signature for studying the dynamics of implosion processes. Due to their high-energy and penetrating nature, γ rays are the most unperturbed fusion products, which can preserve the original birth information of the fusion process. Fusion γ rays provide a direct measure of nuclear reaction rates (unlike x rays) without being compromised by Doppler spreading (unlike neutrons). However, unambiguous γ-ray measurements for ICF study further required a decade-long period of technological development, which included a deepening understanding of fusion γ-ray characteristics and innovations in instrument performance. This review article introduces the production mechanism of the prompt and secondary γ rays and various ICF performance parameters (e.g., bang time and burn width), which can be derived from γ-ray measurement. A technical overview will be followed by summarizing γ-ray detectors fielded or proposed, especially for high-yield ICF experiments at the Omega Laser Facility and National Ignition Facility. Over the past few years, γ-ray diagnostic technologies have been extended beyond ICF research. A few examples of non-ICF applications of γ-ray detectors are introduced at the end of this article. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High-power, short-pulse laser-driven fast electrons can rapidly heat and ionize a high-density target before it hydrodynamically expands. The transport of such electrons within a solid target has been studied using two-dimensional (2D) imaging of electron-induced Kα radiation. However, it is currently limited to no or picosecond scale temporal resolutions. Here, we demonstrate femtosecond time-resolved 2D imaging of fast electron transport in a solid copper foil using the SACLA x-ray free electron laser (XFEL). An unfocused collimated x-ray beam produced transmission images with sub-micron and ∼10 fs resolutions. The XFEL beam, tuned to its photon energy slightly above the Cu K-edge, enabled 2D imaging of transmission changes induced by electron isochoric heating. Time-resolved measurements obtained by varying the time delay between the x-ray probe and the optical laser show that the signature of the electron-heated region expands at ∼25% of the speed of light in a picosecond duration. Time-integrated Cu Kα images support the electron energy and propagation distance observed with the transmission imaging. The x-ray near-edge transmission imaging with a tunable XFEL beam could be broadly applicable for imaging isochorically heated targets by laser-driven relativistic electrons, energetic protons, or an intense x-ray beam. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A multipurpose imaging x-ray crystal spectrometer is developed for the high energy density instrument of the European X-ray Free Electron Laser. The spectrometer is designed to measure x rays in the energy range of 4–10 keV, providing high-resolution, spatially resolved spectral measurements. A toroidally bent germanium (Ge) crystal is used, allowing x-ray diffraction from the crystal to image along a one-dimensional spatial profile while spectrally resolving along the other. A detailed geometrical analysis is performed to determine the curvature of the crystal. The theoretical performance of the spectrometer in various configurations is calculated by ray-tracing simulations. The key properties of the spectrometer, including the spectral and spatial resolution, are demonstrated experimentally on different platforms. Experimental results prove that this Ge spectrometer is a powerful tool for spatially resolved measurements of x-ray emission, scattering, or absorption spectra in high energy density physics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We successfully developed an in situ acoustic emission (AE) detection setup that allows recording of AE waveforms (triggered and streaming) and simultaneous x-ray diffraction and imaging on samples deformed at high pressure and high temperature (HPHT) conditions in the Aster-15 Large Volume Press at the synchrotron beamline station P61B. This high pressure AE detection system is a powerful tool to investigate AE phenomena from the HPHT chamber. Six commercial acoustic sensors, protected by a tungsten carbide support ring on each anvil of the same material, have excellent survivability throughout each successive experiment. By pulsing each sensor in succession, the average wave velocity through the anvils and cell assembly can be determined at any press load. The distance between the sensors is obtained by x-ray radiography and by logging the positions of each hydraulic ram. This provides a basis for accurately locating AE events in the sample. The feasibility of this AE detection setup was confirmed by compression and deformation test runs using several different self-designed AE sources in specialized assemblies. The present setup proves to be extremely efficient and accurate in measuring brittle processes in samples under HPHT. It is now available for applications for beam time and experiments without x rays at P61B. Combined with synchrotron x rays, in situ pressure, temperature, strain rate and stress, and phase changes can be monitored while recording AE activity. We provide a powerful tool to investigate the origin of earthquakes, for example, causing AE emissions due to brittle dehydration reactions or phase transformations in the Earth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In many inertial confinement fusion (ICF) experiments, the neutron yield and other parameters cannot be completely accounted for with one and two dimensional models. This discrepancy suggests that there are three dimensional effects that may be significant. Sources of these effects include defects in the shells and defects in shell interfaces, the fill tube of the capsule, and the joint feature in double shell targets. Due to their ability to penetrate materials, x rays are used to capture the internal structure of objects. Methods such as computational tomography use x-ray radiographs from hundreds of projections, in order to reconstruct a three dimensional model of the object. In experimental environments, such as the National Ignition Facility and Omega-60, the availability of these views is scarce, and in many cases only consists of a single line of sight. Mathematical reconstruction of a 3D object from sparse views is an ill-posed inverse problem. These types of problems are typically solved by utilizing prior information. Neural networks have been used for the task of 3D reconstruction as they are capable of encoding and leveraging this prior information. We utilize half a dozen, different convolutional neural networks to produce different 3D representations of ICF implosions from the experimental data. Deep supervision is utilized to train a neural network to produce high-resolution reconstructions. These representations are used to track 3D features of the capsules, such as the ablator, inner shell, and the joint between shell hemispheres. Machine learning, supplemented by different priors, is a promising method for 3D reconstructions in ICF and x-ray radiography, in general. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

X-ray phase contrast imaging (XPCI) provides enhanced image contrast beyond absorption-based x-ray imaging alone due to refraction and diffraction from gradients in the object material density. It is sensitive to small variations in density, such as internal voids, cracks, grains, defects, and material flow, as well as to stronger density variations such as from a shock wave. Beyond its initial use in biology and materials science, XPCI is now routinely used in inertial confinement fusion (ICF) and high energy density (HED) research, first to characterize ICF capsules and targets, and later applied in dynamic experiments, where coherent x-ray sources, ultrafast x-ray pulses, and high temporal and spatial resolution are required. In this Review article, XPCI image formation theory is presented, its diverse use in ICF and HED research is discussed, the unique requirements for ultrafast XPCI imaging are given, as well as current challenges and issues in its use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abrasive machining has been used for inner surface processing of various hollow components. In this study, we applied an in-air fluid jet as a precision machining method for the inner surface of an axisymmetric x-ray mirror whose inner diameter was less than 10 mm. We employed an abrasive with a polyurethane@silica core–shell structure, which has a low density of about 1.2 g/cm3 and a relatively large particle size of about 15 µm. By using this abrasive, a practical removal rate and a smooth machined surface were simultaneously obtained. We performed figure corrections for an axisymmetric mirror and improved the circumferential figure accuracy to a sub-10 nm root mean square level. To evaluate the machining performance in the longitudinal direction of the ellipsoidal surface, we also performed periodic figure fabrication on the inner surface of a 114 mm-long nickel ellipsoidal mirror. X-ray ptychography, an optical phase retrieval method, was also employed as a three-dimensional figure measurement technique of the mirror. The wavefield of the x-ray beam focused by the processed ellipsoidal mirror was observed with the ptychographic system at SPring-8, a synchrotron radiation facility. The retrieval calculations for the wavefront error confirmed that a sinusoidal waveform with a period of 12 mm was fabricated on the mirror surface. These experimental results suggest that a nanoscale figure fabrication cycle for the inner surface consisting of jet machining and wavefront measurement has been successfully constructed. We expect this technique to be utilized in the fabrication of error-free optical mirrors and various parts having hollow shapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A metrology device based on the near-field speckle technique was developed in the x-ray test beamline at the Shanghai Synchrotron Radiation Facility to meet the at-wavelength detection requirements of ultra-high-precision optical elements. Different sources of error that limit the uncertainty of the instrument were characterized. Two main factors that contribute to the uncertainty of the measurements were investigated: (1) noise errors introduced by the electronics and the errors introduced by the algorithm and (2) stability errors owing to environmental conditions. The results show that the high measurement stability of the device is realized because it is insensitive to the effect of the external environment. The repetition accuracy of the device achieved 9 nrad (rms) when measuring the planar mirror that produces weak phase curvature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Demonstration tests of the alignment of Fresnel zone plate focusing optics using a full-field x-ray microscope and microbeam x-ray diffraction measurements combined with the full-field x-ray microscope were performed. It was confirmed that the full-field x-ray microscope enables direct two-dimensional observation of a microbeam with sub-micrometer spatial resolution. This allowed visualization of the misalignment of the focusing optics, resulting in accurate alignment of the optics within a short time. In addition, the microscope could be used to observe the sample as well as the microbeam, which enabled clarification of the position and two-dimensional shape of the microbeam on the sample. This realized a measurement procedure that a 100-μm-size sample was imaged with sub-micrometer spatial resolution, and then, microbeam-use measurements were performed for only the region of interest determined by the microscope, which has been difficult with conventional microbeam applications. The combination of observations by a full-field x-ray microscope and measurements using a microbeam is expected to open a new style of measurement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An x-ray Fresnel diffractive radiography platform was designed for use at the National Ignition Facility. It will enable measurements of micron-scale changes in the density gradients across an interface between isochorically heated warm dense matter materials, the evolution of which is driven primarily through thermal conductivity and mutual diffusion. We use 4.75 keV Ti K-shell x-ray emission to heat a 1000 μm diameter plastic cylinder, with a central 30 μm diameter channel filled with liquid D2, up to 8 eV. This leads to a cylindrical implosion of the liquid D2 column, compressing it to ∼2.3 g/cm3. After pressure equilibration, the location of the D2/plastic interface remains steady for several nanoseconds, which enables us to track density gradient changes across the material interface with high precision. For radiography, we use Cu He-α x rays at 8.3 keV. Using a slit aperture of only 1 μm width increases the spatial coherence of the source, giving rise to significant diffraction features in the radiography signal, in addition to the refraction enhancement, which further increases its sensitivity to density scale length changes at the D2/plastic interface. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We introduce the setup of a versatile sample chamber for x-ray scattering experiments on liquids delivered by μ-jets. The simple implementation at x-ray light sources, adaptability to different nozzle types, and the availability of a microscope for observation of the jet flow allow for its broad application. In combination with an inbuilt recycling circle, a continuous flow operation is provided. Functionality of the system was demonstrated in a rheology study at PETRA III. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates methods to optimize quasi-monochromatic, ∼10 ns long x-ray sources (XRS) for time-resolved x-ray diffraction measurements of phase transitions during dynamic laser compression measurements at the National Ignition Facility (NIF). To support this, we produce continuous and pulsed XRS by irradiating a Ge foil with NIF lasers to achieve an intensity of 2 × 1015 W/cm2, optimizing the laser-to-x-ray conversion efficiency. Our x-ray source is dominated by Ge He-α line emission. We discuss methods to optimize the source to maintain a uniform XRS for ∼10 ns, mitigating cold plasma and higher energy x-ray emission lines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Low- and mid-mode perturbations are possible candidates for performance limitations in cryogenic direct-drive implosions on the OMEGA laser at the Laboratory of Laser Energetics. Simulations with a 3D hydrocode demonstrated that hotspot imagers do not show evidence of the shell breakup in the dense fuel. However, these same simulations revealed that the low- and mid-mode perturbations in the dense fuel could be diagnosed more easily in the post-stagnation phase of the implosion by analyzing the peak in the x-ray emission limb at the coronal–fuel interface than before or at the stagnation phase. In experiments, the asymmetries are inferred from gated images of the x-ray emission of the implosion by using a 16-pinhole array imager filtered to record x-ray energies >800 eV and an x-ray framing camera with 40-ps time integration and 20-μm spatial resolution. A modal analysis is applied to the spatial distribution of the x-ray emission from deuterium and tritium cryogenic implosions on OMEGA recorded after the bang time to diagnose the low- and mid-mode asymmetries, and to study the effect that the beam-to-target ratio (Rb/Rt) has on the shell integrity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To prevent the x-ray detectors from the interference of optical photons, x-ray filters are widely used in x-ray space missions. As the flux of low energy x-rays would be significantly attenuated by the filters, it is important to derive the transmittance of the filters below 10 keV. In this paper, we present a simple experimental apparatus and data processing method to measure the transmittance curve of x-ray filters in the energy range from 1.6 to 10 keV. The measured spectra were further processed with Geant4 Monte Carlo simulation results and a direct demodulation algorithm. The obtained transmittance is in good accordance with the theoretical calculation and the synchrotron radiation test result, which proves that the proposed system with the algorithm is a reasonable way to characterize the x-ray transmittance performance of filters above 1.6 keV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Triaxial compression experiments are commonly used to characterize the elastic and inelastic behavior of geomaterials. In situ measurements of grain kinematics, particle breakage, stresses, and other microscopic phenomena have seldom been made during such experiments, particularly at high pressures relevant to many geologic and man-made processes, limiting our fundamental understanding. To address this issue, we developed a new triaxial compression device called HP-TACO (High-Pressure TriAxial COmpression Apparatus). HP-TACO is a miniaturized, conventional triaxial compression apparatus permitting confining pressures up to 50 MPa and deviatoric straining of materials, while also allowing in situ x-ray measurements of grain-scale kinematics and stresses. Here, we present the design of and first results from HP-TACO during its use in laboratory and synchrotron settings to study grain-scale kinematics and stresses in triaxially compressed sands subjected to 15 and 30 MPa confining pressures. The data highlight the unique capabilities of HP-TACO for studying the high-pressure mechanics of sands, providing new insight into micromechanical processes occurring during geologic and man-made processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Optimum performance in x-ray imaging and spectroscopy of plasmas with bent crystals is achievable only when the crystal reflects the x rays theoretically perfectly across its entire surface. However, typical thin quartz (101̄1) crystal samples kept flat by direct attachment to a flat substrate reflect 8 keV x rays differently across their surface, on a scale comparable to the ideal rocking curve. Additional processing improves the uniformity. Irradiation of flat crystals with collimated, monochromatic x rays in rocking curve topography shows such problems directly, with microradian resolution. Nonuniform x-ray reflection is more difficult to document for strongly bent crystals because, then, monochromatic, collimated x rays satisfy the Bragg condition only along a narrow stripe that may be too narrow to resolve with the available cameras. However, it can be resolved with a knife edge that moves through the reflected x rays with the necessary spatial precision as demonstrated here for a bent silicon crystal. This shows qualitatively similar imperfections in the reflection as flat quartz and as the bent quartz analyzers reported on previously with lower resolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]