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Boys with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) experience both fine and gross motor problems. Nowadays, early intervention focuses almost exclusively on gross motor skills. We aimed to explore early motor development in preschool boys with DMD and investigate the influence of cognition. Seventeen boys with DMD (11 months- 6 years) were compared to typically developing (TD) peers and followed-up with the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development (Bayley-III); Peabody developmental motor scales (PDMS-II) and Motor Function Measure (MFM-20). The longitudinal evolution of fine and gross motor skills was investigated using linear mixed effect models (LMM). Cognition was added to the LMM as a covariate. Preschool boys with DMD scored lower compared to TD peers on both fine and gross motor skills (p<0.001). The evolution of motor development was subscale-dependent. A significant influence of cognition was found on different subscales (p= 0.002–0.04). Preschool boys with DMD do not achieve the same functioning level as TD boys. Cognition plays a crucial role in the evolution of motor skills. Our results suggest a shift to a broader psychomotor approach including both fine and gross motor skills, also considering the impact of cognition. Our study provides a detailed mapping of early fine and gross motor development in preschool boys with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) and describes the influence of cognition on both fine and gross motor skills. Preschool boys with DMD do not achieve the same functioning level compared to typically developing boys. They score significantly lower on both fine and gross motor skills. The evolution of fine and gross motor development was subscale-dependent e.g. a negative-positive evolution was seen for grasping skills, with a tipping point around the age of four; stationary scaled scores decreased followed by a stabilization around the age four to five and locomotion scaled scores remained stable over time. Finally, we also found that cognition plays a crucial role in the evolution of both fine and gross motor skills. These new insights in the evolution of early motor development could be of added value for future clinical trials in young boys with DMD. Subsequently, increased alertness to early symptoms, e.g. developmental delay, may advance the age of diagnosis, as well as associated early intervention. • Boys with DMD experience both fine and gross motor problems yet at preschool age. • Preschool boys with DMD do not achieve the same functioning motor level as TD boys. • Evolution of motor skills differs between different motor subdomains. • Cognitive development plays a role in fine and gross motor development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The present study analyses the effect of a Movement-Based Intervention to improve Actual and Perceived Motor Competence in children with probable Developmental Coordination Disorder aged four and six years., Methods and Procedures: A longitudinal pre-experimental study was designed with measurements conducted at pre-test, post-test and follow-up (after 5 months without intervention). The group, composed of children with probable Developmental Coordination Disorder or low motor competence, consisted of 57 participants, and the duration of a Movement-Based Intervention was 27 sessions allocated in nine weeks., Outcomes and Results: Actual Motor Competence was evaluated with the Movement Assessment Battery for School children and Perceived Motor Competence with Pictorial Scale of Perceived Motor Skill Competence for Children. The results showed significant improvements in both study variables (Actual Motor Competence and Perceived Motor Competence), both at post-test and follow-up, five months after the end of the intervention. In conclusion, a Movement-based Intervention is effective in improving Actual and Perceived Motor Competence in the participants of this research, children with low motor competence or probable Developmental Coordination Disorder., What This Paper Adds: Considering the improvements observed after the program in Spanish sample, it seems that the usual practice in Early Childhood Education in our context may not be sufficient, i.e., it may not provide children with the necessary support (number of lesson and time) and appropriate learning contexts to promote the development of their motor skills. Considering the results, this study suggests that using an Movement-Based Intervention with an appropriate pedagogical approach, and offering different learning opportunities to children according to their needs, could positively influence their Actual and Perceived Motor Competence, and could motivate them towards future practice., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Background: Physically active learning (PAL) is a potentially valuable method to stimulate academic performance and physical activity (PA) in children with learning disorders (LD) attending special-needs schools. It is yet unknown whether PAL can be successfully implemented in special-needs schools., Aims: This study aimed to evaluate a PAL-program in special-needs schools by examining teacher's dose delivered, children's dose received, and associations of children's characteristics with dose received., Methods: Children (N = 37) from two special-needs schools participated in a six-week PAL-program. Dose delivered was evaluated based on PAL-lessons' implementation rate and duration. Dose received was assessed through time-on-task observations (n = 23) and PA (n = 37). To assess the association between dose received and children's characteristics (sex, behavioral disorders, motor skills, and physical fitness), Mann-Whitney U tests and Spearman's rho correlations were used., Results: For teacher's dose delivered, the implementation rate exceeded 95%, and the PAL-lessons lasted the intended 12 minutes. For dose received, children's on-task behavior was above 79%, and children spent 43% of the time in moderate-to-vigorous PA during PAL. Motor skills were positively related to on-task behavior related to the movements, and physical fitness was positively related to moderate-to-vigorous PA., Conclusions: PAL was successfully implemented in terms of dose delivered and dose received for children with LD attending special-needs schools., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is a condition characterized by difficulties in motor planning and coordination and affects 5 to 6% of all school-aged children. Children with DCD frequently present with difficulties with academic activities such as handwriting. However, no study to date has comprehensively described mathematical capacity and its potential associated factors in this high-risk group. We aimed to describe the frequency and nature of mathematical difficulties of school-aged children with DCD and to evaluate potential factors associated with mathematical performance. A total of 55 elementary school-aged children with DCD underwent comprehensive standardized assessments of mathematical, visuoperceptual (VP), attentional, visual-motor integration (VMI), and motor skills. The contribution of each factor to mathematical capacity was established using hierarchical multivariate linear regression models. Children with DCD (9.1 ± 1.5 years, 44 males) had lower overall mathematical capacity compared to normative data (−0.59 SD) on the KeyMath 3rd edition, with poorer performance in basic concepts and problem-solving. Thirty-eight percent of the sample performed below the 15th percentile in overall mathematical skills. VP skills were the most important factors associated with most mathematical domains. Thirty-four percent of the variance of overall mathematical capacity was explained by VP skills, inattention, VMI and motor impairments while controlling for household income (F [5,49]=5.029, p <.0001). Children with DCD present with mathematical difficulties in basic concepts and problem-solving, which are partially explained by VP skills. Our findings stress the important of systematically assessing mathematical difficulties children with DCD to ensure they receive the necessary support that leads to academic success. • Children with DCD frequently present with significant mathematical difficulties. • Visuoperceptual skills are strong determinants of overall mathematical capacity in children with DCD. • Children with DCD should be systematically assessed for mathematical difficulties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims: To examine sleep problems in a population-based sample of school-aged children (8-12yo) with Cerebral Palsy (CP) METHOD: Eighty-six children (mean 9 years, 5 months, SD = 1 year, 6 months; male = 60) with CP (Gross Motor Function Classification System; GMFCS I=46; II=21; III=9; IV=6; V=6) participated. Classifications/assessments included: Sleep Disturbance Scale for Children (SDSC), Gross Motor Function Measure (GMFM-66), Manual Ability Classification System (MACS), Communication Function Classification System (CFCS), Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) and the Cerebral Palsy- Quality of Life (CP-QOL) Pain Impact subscale. Analysis included linear and logistic regression., Results: 38 (44 %) children were within the clinical range for sleep problems. Sleep problems were significantly associated with epilepsy, (95 % CI) = 14.48 (7.95 to 21.01), gross motor function, -0.13 (-0.26 to -0.01), manual ability, 7.26 (0.82 to 13.69), communication, 10.01 (2.21 to 17.80), child behaviour, 1.134 (0.74 to 1.53), and pain related QOL, 0.33 (0.12 to 0.53). For the multivariable model, sleep problems remained significantly associated with epilepsy, b (95 % CI) = 11.72 (4.88 to 18.57), child behaviour, 1.03 (0.65 to 1.41) and pain-related QOL, 0.21 (0.29 to 0.38)., Conclusions: Sleep problems are common and associated with epilepsy, child behaviour and pain related QOL., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest None., (Copyright © 2024. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is a neurodevelopmental condition impacting motor skill acquisition and competence. While previous studies have identified adverse psychosocial outcomes in DCD, they are limited by small or population-screened, community-based samples. To understand the psychosocial difficulties, parental concerns, and familial impacts of childhood DCD in a large population-based sample. Parents of 310 children aged 4 – 18 years with a diagnosis of DCD (or synonymous term) completed the Impact for DCD survey. Parent-rated measures of emotional problems, peer problems, and prosocial behaviour were compared to normative data. Parental concerns for the impact of DCD on participation, interaction, emotional well-being, and the family system were examined. Compared to typically developing children, children with DCD were rated significantly higher for emotional and peer problems, and significantly lower for prosocial behaviours. Parents most commonly reported concerns for their child's future and withdrawal from physical activity. The presence of one or more co-occurring disorders did not significantly influence outcomes. Findings highlight the poor psychosocial outcomes for children with DCD. Crucially, poor psychosocial outcomes were just as likely in those with a single diagnosis of DCD as those with DCD and multiple co-occurring diagnoses. Parents reported concerns for their child (i.e., non-participation and social withdrawal) that are not targeted in existing DCD intervention modalities and emphasised the impact of DCD on the whole family unit. This paper presents data from the largest parent-reported survey of children with a known diagnosis of DCD (or synonymous labels). It highlights the significant impact of DCD on psychosocial outcomes in children across age groups. The children in this study were rated by their parents to have significantly higher levels of emotional and peer problems, and lower prosocial behaviours, than similarly aged Australian children without DCD. It also challenges the misconception that poor psychosocial outcomes in DCD are the result of co-occurring disorders, with outcomes observed to be as poor in children with a sole diagnosis of DCD in this sample. Furthermore, findings highlighted the significant worry and concern that parents with DCD face, particularly around their child's participation and their emotional health. Finally, parents reported on the considerable impact that DCD had on their family unit, regularly causing worry and concern, influencing their choice of activities, and causing financial strain. These concerns and impacts are not addressed in current intervention models for DCD and highlight the need for support mechanisms moving forward. • Children with DCD face a heightened risk of poor psychosocial outcomes. • Psychosocial difficulties persist across males and females of all ages. • Psychosocial difficulties in DCD are not the result of co-occurring conditions. • DCD significantly increases parental care load and causes financial strain. • Half of the parents in the study 'always' worry about their child's future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is among the most under-recognized and under-supported disorders worldwide. To present a preliminary national study that evaluated the unmet needs of children with DCD in the USA using the Impact for DCD survey. 232 parents of individuals aged 5–18 years provided responses from 36 items in five domains (diagnosis, activity/participation, education, therapy, and social/emotional health). Most children (81.9%) had a formal diagnosis for movement difficulties, and 91.6% of parents reported that receiving a diagnosis was helpful, but most had not heard of the diagnosis before. The most common co-occurring diagnoses were childhood apraxia of speech and other speech-language disorders (24.6%), ADHD (23.1%), and anxiety (18.8%). Most parents reported that their children withdrew from or avoided movement-related activities (53%), and nearly all (94.8%) were concerned about the impact of motor difficulties on their children's social and emotional health. Only 37% of parents reported feeling that their child received sufficient therapy. Generally, parents reported feeling frustrated with others' understanding and awareness of the condition and with therapy services. The results shown here provide timely data that can support efforts for increased awareness, improved diagnosis, and increased availability of services for DCD in the USA. • DCD is under-recognized and under-supported. • 232 parents completed the Impact for DCD – USA survey. • Most children had a formal diagnosis. • Parents reported feeling frustrated with awareness of the condition and therapy services. • Results can support efforts for increased availability of services for DCD in the USA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Practitioners often assess the motor skills of children presented with suspected developmental delays. It is essential that the tests used to assess children have strong measurement properties including validity.Aim: The structural validity of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency - second edition Brief Form (BOT-2-BF) was investigated.Method: 123 healthy children (67 males & 56 females; M = 10 years, 2 months; SD = 1 year, 4 months) completed the BOT-2-BF. The Rasch Measurement Model (RMM) was used to assess the 14-item BOT-2-BF's dimensionality, hierarchical ordering, differential item functioning (DIF), and item and person separation reliability.Results: Nine BOT-2-BF misfit RMM requirements. A second RMM analysis of a five-item BOT-2-BF version was completed. The five-item version did meet the RMM requirements of item fit, dimensionality, hierarchical ordering, lack of DIF, and adequate item and person separation reliability.Implications: The 14-item version of the BOT-2-BF is not recommended for use as a screening scale to assess children's motor skill performance. However, a revised five-item version of the BOT-2-BF did appear to meet RMM expectations. Further psychometric assessment of the revised five-item version of the BOT-2-BF is recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: A relationship between motor performance and cognitive functioning is increasingly being recognized. Yet, little is known about the precise nature of the relationship between both domains, especially in early childhood.Aims: To identify distinct constellations of motor performance, executive functioning (EF), and verbal ability in preschool aged children; and to explore how individual and contextual variables are related to profile membership.Methods and Procedures: The sample consisted of 119 3- to 4-year old children (62 boys; 52%). The home based assessments consisted of a standardized motor test (Movement Assessment Battery for Children - 2), five performance-based EF tasks measuring inhibition and working memory, and the Receptive Vocabulary subtest from the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence Third Edition. Parents filled out the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function - Preschool version. Latent profile analysis (LPA) was used to delineate profiles of motor performance, EF, and verbal ability. Chi-square statistics and multinomial logistic regression analysis were used to examine whether profile membership was predicted by age, gender, risk of motor coordination difficulties, ADHD symptomatology, language problems, and socioeconomic status (SES).Outcomes and Results: LPA yielded three profiles with qualitatively distinct response patterns of motor performance, EF, and verbal ability. Quantitatively, the profiles showed most pronounced differences with regard to parent ratings and performance-based tests of EF, as well as verbal ability. Risk of motor coordination difficulties and ADHD symptomatology were associated with profile membership, whereas age, gender, language problems, and SES were not.Conclusions and Implications: Our results indicate that there are distinct subpopulations of children who show differential relations with regard to motor performance, EF, and verbal ability. The fact that we found both quantitative as well as qualitative differences between the three patterns of profiles underscores the need for a person-centered approach with a focus on patterns of individual characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The Environmental Stress Hypothesis provides a conceptual framework detailing the complex relationship between poor motor skills and internalizing problems.Aims: This integrative research aimed to synthesize studies that have evaluated complex pathways posited in the framework.Method: This study followed the four stages of an integrative research review: (i) problem formation and research aims, (ii) literature search and data collection, (iii) data evaluation and analysis, and (iv) results and discussion.Outcomes and Results: Twelve peer-reviewed, English language studies published within 2010-2018 were identified. These used mostly cross-sectional, correlational methods and provided varying levels of support for relationships posited in the framework in samples spanning early childhood to adulthood. Compared to intrapersonal factors (e.g., self-esteem/ perceived competence), interpersonal factors (e.g., social support, peer problems) were found to more strongly and consistently mediate the relationship between motor skills and internalizing problems.Conclusions and Implications: There is growing empirical support for many of the Environmental Stress Hypothesis pathways. However, research to date is limited in the ability to establish causal relationships between variables, which is integral to the Environmental Stress Hypothesis. Intervention studies provide a useful type of experimental research that could establish causality between variables, while working to improve the physical and psychosocial functioning of people with poor motor skills. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Virtual reality and game-based approaches to the rehabilitation process also brought an opportunity to design more accessible intervention programs.It was seen that many studies utilized trademarked and commercially available games, which were not originally designed as rehabilitation tools but were administrated by a rehabilitation professional to achieve the maximum therapeutic value. Study aims to investigate the effects of a Self-oriented game based program(SGBP)and Therapist Guided Game-based Intervention Program(TGGIP) on the motor skills of children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder(ADHD). This study was designed as a single-blind, randomized, controlled trial. A total of 176 children with ADHD participated in the study and were randomly divided into two groups (TGGIP and SGBP). Intervention in both groups was done with a telerehabilitation methodology. According to the within-group comparisons of pre- and post-intervention BOT2-BF scores, there were significant increases in all sub-scores and the total score(p < 0.05). The comparison of the BOT2-BF all sub-scores and the total score changes between the groups showed significantly higher in TGGIP. TGGIP was found to be more effective compared to SGBP in improving motor skills of children with ADHD.TGGIP that we designed acts as a facilitator for therapists in using trademarked and easily accessible games for structured and supervised virtual reality and game-based rehabilitation. [Display omitted] • Game based intervention recently became popular in ADHD rehabilitation. • Trademarked games may not be enough for rehabilitation. • Therapist guided is the most important part of ADHD game based rehabilitation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies have found an association between motor immaturity and developmental language impairment in children. However, systematic investigations of somatosensory dysfunctions that might be linked to motor deficits in children with developmental language disorder (DLD) are lacking. Examined haptic perception and motor skills in school-age children with DLD and typically-developing (TD) children. Sixteen children with DLD and sixteen age-matched TD children performed a curvature detection task measuring haptic sensitivity and a curvature discrimination task measuring haptic acuity. The Movement Assessment Battery for Children, 2nd edition (MABC-2) was also conducted to evaluate children's motor ability. The results revealed elevated thresholds of both haptic detection (67.5%) and haptic discrimination (67.9%) in the DLD group when compared to the TD group. In addition, the children with DLD performed significantly less well on the manual dexterity of MABC-2. Finally, a lower haptic acuity was associated with poorer manual dexterity scores of MABC-2. This study demonstrates for the first time that not only motor skills, but also haptic function is altered in children with DLD. The observed association between manual dexterity and haptic acuity suggests a close relationship between haptic and motor skills in school-age children. • Haptic sensitivity is altered in children with DLD, with the group mean detection threshold in children with DLD being 67.5% higher than that in their peers. • Half of the children with DLD score below the 5th percentile of the normative mean on a standardized movement assessment. • Children with DLD show poorer manual dexterity than their peers. • Decreased haptic acuity is significantly linked to lower levels of fine motor function in children with DLD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) face difficulties in motor learning. Action observation and imitation are strategies frequently used to teach motor skills., Aims: (1) To study action observation and imitation abilities in children with DCD compared with typically developing peers with a new protocol. (2) To gain insights in the relation between action observation, imitation, motor performance and activities of daily living (ADL)., Method: Twenty-one children with DCD (mean age 7 years 9 months, range 6-10 years) and 20 age-matched controls (mean age 7 years 8 months, range 6-10 years) were included. A newly developed protocol was used for testing action observation and imitation proficiency. Motor performance were evaluated with the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2. ADL were investigated with DCD Questionnaire'07., Results: Children with DCD presented significantly lower action observation (p = .037) and imitation abilities (p < .001) than peers. Worse action observation and imitation abilities were related to lower motor performance and ADL skills and a younger age. Non-meaningful gestures imitation proficiency had predictive value for global motor performance (p = .009), manual dexterity (p = .02) and ADL (p = .004)., Conclusions: The new protocol for action observation and imitation abilities can be helpful for detecting motor learning difficulties and for delineating new opportunities for motor teaching approaches in children with DCD., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: Individuals with Down syndrome (DS) have impaired general motor skills compared to typically developed (TD) individuals., Aims: To gain knowledge on how young adults with DS learn and retain new motor skills., Methods and Procedures: A DS-group (mean age = 23.9 ± 3 years, N = 11), and an age-matched TD-group (mean age 22.8 ± 1.8, N = 14) were recruited. The participants practiced a visuomotor accuracy tracking task (VATT) in seven blocks (10.6 min). Online and offline effects of practice were assessed based on tests of motor performance at baseline immediate and 7-day retention., Outcomes and Results: The TD-group performed better than the DS-group on all blocks (all P < 0.001). Both groups improved VATT-performance online from baseline to immediate retention, (all P < 0.001) with no difference in online effect between groups. A significant between-group difference was observed in the offline effect (∆TD - ∆DS, P = 0.04), as the DS-group's performance at 7-day retention was equal to their performance at immediate retention (∆DS, P > 0.05), whereas an offline decrease in performance was found in the TD-group (∆TD, P < 0.001)., Conclusions and Implications: Visuomotor pinch force accuracy is lower for adults with DS compared to TD. However, adults with DS display significant online improvements in performance with motor practice similar to changes observed for TD. Additionally, adults with DS demonstrate offline consolidation following motor learning leading to significant retention effects., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors have no conflicts of interest, neither economic nor scientific, in relation to this paper., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Aims: Compare the cognitive and motor development in overweight/obese infants versus normal-weight peers and investigate the correlation of body weight, body length and body mass index with cognitive and motor development.Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional study with 28 overweight/obese infants and 28 normal-weight peers between 6 and 24 months of age. Both groups were evaluated with cognitive and motor scales of the Bayley-III infant development test. The t-test for independent samples was performed to compare the groups, and the Spearman correlation was used to verify the association between variables.Results: Overweight/obese infants showed lower cognitive and motor composite scores than their normal-weight peers. A significant negative association was found of body weight and body length with cognitive development and of body mass index with motor development.Conclusion: This is the first study that found an effect on both cognitive and motor development in overweight/obese infants when compared with normal-weight peers between 6 and 24 months of age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: We analysed developmental outcomes from a clinical trial early in life and its follow-up at 10.7 years in 123 children with Down syndrome.Aims: To determine 1) strengths and weaknesses in adaptive functioning and motor skills at 10.7 years, and 2) prognostic value of early-life characteristics (early developmental outcomes, parental and child characteristics, and comorbidity) for later intelligence, adaptive functioning and motor skills.Methods and Procedures: We used standardized assessments of mental and motor development at ages 6, 12 and 24 months, and of intelligence, adaptive functioning and motor skills at 10.7 years. We compared strengths and weaknesses in adaptive functioning and motor skills by repeated-measures ANOVAs in the total group and in children scoring above-average versus below-average. The prognostic value of demographics, comorbidity and developmental outcomes was analysed by two-step regression.Outcomes and Results: Socialisation was a stronger adaptive skill than Communication followed by Daily Living. Aiming and catching was a stronger motor skill than Manual dexterity, followed by Balance. Above-average and below-average scoring children showed different profiles of strengths and weaknesses. Gender, (the absence or presence of) infantile spasms and particularly 24-month mental functioning predicted later intelligence and adaptive functioning. Motor skills, however, appeared to be less well predicted by early life characteristics.Conclusions and Implications: These findings provide a reference for expected developmental levels and strengths and weaknesses in Down syndrome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: To determine longitudinal motor performance in very preterm (VPT) infants from 6 months to 5 years of age for the entire cohort of infants, according to gender and gestational age and at the individual level.Method: Single-center, prospective longitudinal study of 201 VPT infants (106 boys) without severe impairments.Outcomes: Motor performance was assessed with the Bayley Scales of Infant Development (BSID-II-MS: 6, 12, 24 months) and the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (MABC-2-NL: 5 years).Results: At 6, 12, and 24 months and then at 5 years, 77%, 80%, 48%, and 22% of the infants, respectively, showed delayed motor performance (<-1SD). At 5 years, girls performed significantly better than boys in manual dexterity and balance. MIXED MODEL ANALYSES: that examined interactions between time and gender and time and gestational age, revealed no significant interactions. The variance at child level was 29%. Linear mixed model analysis revealed that mean z-scores of -1.46 at 6 months of age declined significantly to -0.52 at 5 years. Individual longitudinal motor performance showed high variability.Implications: Longitudinal motor performance improved almost 1 SD over five years. However, the variability of individual longitudinal motor performance hampers evaluation in clinical care and research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is well documented that regular physical activity (PA) participation improves physical functions of children with a developmental disability (DD). Researchers have begun to pay attention to virtual reality (VR) based PA programs, but there is a lack of research evidence. We aimed to examine the effect of a VR-based PA program on motor skills and PA levels in children with DD. Twenty-three children with DD were randomly assigned to an experimental and a control group. The intervention was conducted for 24 sessions, 40 min each, and twice a week. Each participant rode a stationary bike with a cadence sensor wearing a VR headset. TGMD–3 and a GENEActiv accelerometer were used to measure motor skills and PA levels one week before and after the intervention. Children in the experimental group showed a significant increase in locomotor skills. Ball skills also increased but did not have significant differences. For PA levels, both groups did not have significant increase after the intervention. A VR-based PA program was effective in improving locomotor skills among children with DD. To significantly change ball skills and PA levels of children with DD, VR-based PA program mixed with reality-based PA program is probably necessary. • Stationary bicycle-based VR exergaming has a positive effect on motor skills, especially in locomotor skills, in children with a developmental disability. • Ball skills in children with a developmental disability also increased but did not have significant difference meaning that steering the body for redirection or using a controller is not enough to improve the skills of controlling an object. • VR-based physical activity does not increase the physical activity levels of children with a developmental disability, and thus additional or modified interventions are necessary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) show indications for mental health problems. However, these problems are poorly understood.Aims: To identify patterns (profiles) of mental health in this population and to analyze the associations between profiles and child characteristics.Methods and Procedures: Parents of 119 children with DCD completed the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire.Outcomes and Results: Results indicated that a four latent class was the best model. Profile 1 was defined as "no" mental health problems (n = 28; 24 %), Profile 2 was defined as "hyperactivity" problems (n = 53; 43.3 %), for clinical indications for hyperactivity, Profile 3 was defined as "internalizing" problems (n = 8; 7.3 %), for clinical indications for emotional symptoms and peer problems, and Profile 4 was defined as "internalizing and externalizing problems" (n = 30; 25.4 %), for clinical indications for problems in both areas. In addition, having a co-occurring disorder, accommodation plans, and using medications were associated with the profiles.Conclusions and Implications: There are distinct and unique profiles that children with DCD exhibit. Clinicians can use these profiles to better understand the presentation of mental health symptoms in this population and provide adequate services or support if mental health difficulties are present. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In everyday life, tasks are often performed simultaneously, which may be more difficult for children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) than their peers., Aims: To examine (1) the effects of task complexity and type of concurrent task on dual-task performance in children with and without DCD; and (2) if the amount of effort that children put into the task performance differs between the groups., Methods: Participants were 64 children with and without DCD (aged 7-14 years). The dual-task paradigm consisted of a manual dexterity task of relatively low complexity (box and block test) or relatively high complexity (pegboard task), and a concurrent motor task (cycling task) or a concurrent cognitive task (word-listening task). To assess mental effort, children were asked how tired they felt before and after the experiment., Results: Dual-task interference was highest when the manual dexterity task of relatively high complexity was combined with the concurrent motor task. There were no group differences in dual-task interference, but children with DCD reported a larger increase in the level of tiredness after the experiment indicative of greater mental effort., Conclusions: Depending on task demands, children with DCD are able to perform dual-tasks at the same level as their peers, but performance may take children with DCD more mental effort., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

The present study assessed the effects of a 12-week table tennis exercise on motor skills, social behaviors, and executive functions in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). In the first 12-week phase, 16 children (group I) received the intervention, whereas 16 children (group II) did not. A second 12-week phase immediately followed with the treatments reversed. Improvements were observed in executive functions in both groups after the intervention. After the first 12-week phase, some motor and behavioral functions improved in group I. After the second 12-week phase, similar improvements were noted for group II, and the intervention effects achieved in the first phase were persisted in group I. The racket-sport intervention is valuable in promoting motor skills, social behaviors, and executive functions and should be included within the standard-of-care treatment for children with ADHD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Visual-motor integration (VMI) skills are essential for successful academic performance, but to date no studies have assessed these skills in a population-based cohort of Australian Aboriginal children who, like many children in other remote, disadvantaged communities, consistently underperform academically. Furthermore, many children in remote areas of Australia have prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) and Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD), which are often associated with VMI deficits.Methods: VMI, visual perception, and fine motor coordination were assessed using The Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration, including its associated subtests of Visual Perception and Fine Motor Coordination, in a cohort of predominantly Australian Aboriginal children (7.5-9.6 years, n=108) in remote Western Australia to explore whether PAE adversely affected test performance. Cohort results were reported, and comparisons made between children i) without PAE; ii) with PAE (no FASD); and iii) FASD. The prevalence of moderate (≤16th percentile) and severe (≤2nd percentile) impairment was established.Results: Mean VMI scores were 'below average' (M=87.8±9.6), and visual perception scores were 'average' (M=97.6±12.5), with no differences between groups. Few children had severe VMI impairment (1.9%), but moderate impairment rates were high (47.2%). Children with FASD had significantly lower fine motor coordination scores and higher moderate impairment rates (M=87.9±12.5; 66.7%) than children without PAE (M=95.1±10.7; 23.3%) and PAE (no FASD) (M=96.1±10.9; 15.4%).Conclusions: Aboriginal children living in remote Western Australia have poor VMI skills regardless of PAE or FASD. Children with FASD additionally had fine motor coordination problems. VMI and fine motor coordination should be assessed in children with PAE, and included in FASD diagnostic assessments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is generally agreed that cognitive and language development are dependent on the emergence of motor skills. As the literature on this issue concerning children with developmental disabilities is scarce, we examined the interrelationships between motor, cognitive, and language development in children with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) and compared them to those in children without IDD. In addition, we investigated whether these relationships differ between children with different levels of cognitive delay. Seventy-seven children with IDD (calendar age between 1;0 and 9;10 years; mean developmental age: 1;8 years) and 130 typically developing children (calendar age between 0;3 and 3;6 years; mean developmental age: 1;10 years) were tested with the Dutch Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Third Edition, which assesses development across three domains using five subscales: fine motor development, gross motor development (motor), cognition (cognitive), receptive communication, and expressive communication (language). Results showed that correlations between the motor, cognitive, and language domains were strong, namely .61 to .94 in children with IDD and weak to strong, namely .24 to .56 in children without IDD. Furthermore, the correlations showed a tendency to increase with the severity of IDD. It can be concluded that both fine and gross motor development are more strongly associated with cognition, and consequently language, in children with IDD than in children without IDD. The findings of this study emphasize the importance of early interventions that boost both motor and cognitive development, and suggest that such interventions will also enhance language development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the comorbidity between motor difficulties and certain disabilities, limited research has examined links between early motor, cognitive, and social skills in preschool-aged children with developmental disabilities. The present study examined the relative contributions of gross motor and fine motor skills to the prediction of improvements in children's cognitive and social skills among 2,027 pre-kindergarten children with developmental disabilities, including specific learning disorder, speech/language impairment, intellectual disability, and autism spectrum disorder. Results indicated that for pre-kindergarten children with developmental disabilities, fine motor skills, but not gross motor skills, were predictive of improvements in cognitive and social skills, even after controlling for demographic information and initial skill levels. Moreover, depending on the type of developmental disability, the pattern of prediction of gross motor and fine motor skills to improvements in children's cognitive and social skills differed. Implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the predictive value of early spontaneous communication for identifying risk for later language concerns, very little research has focused on these behaviors in extremely low-gestational-age infants (ELGA<28 weeks) or on their relationship with motor development. In this study, communicative behaviors (gestures, vocal utterances and their coordination) were evaluated during mother-infant play interactions in 20 ELGA infants and 20 full-term infants (FT) at 12 months (corrected age for ELGA infants). Relationships between gestures and motor skills, evaluated using the Bayley-III Scales were also examined. ELGA infants, compared with FT infants, showed less advanced communicative, motor, and cognitive skills. Giving and representational gestures were produced at a lower rate by ELGA infants. In addition, pointing gestures and words were produced by a lower percentage of ELGA infants. Significant positive correlations between gestures (pointing and representational gestures) and fine motor skills were found in the ELGA group. We discuss the relevance of examining spontaneous communicative behaviors and motor skills as potential indices of early development that may be useful for clinical assessment and intervention with ELGA infants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Exploratory behaviors are essential and may improve different skill development. Different risk factors may negatively impact neuromotor development, such as biological risk and environmental risk.Objective: Assess and discriminate exploratory behaviors of infants at environmental or biological risk and infants at non-risk.Methods: Sixty-four six-month-old infants were divided into three independent groups: Group 1 (G1), 28 healthy full-term infants; Group 2 (G2), 21 full-term infants of low socioeconomic status (SES); Group 3 (G3), 15 very preterm infants. Nine exploratory behaviors were assessed: fingering, mouthing, waving, tapping, banging, transferring, rotating, alternating, and squeezing.Results: For the malleable object, fingering (p = 0.005) and transferring (p = 0.046) behaviors were different between G2 and G3 whereas waving behavior (p = 0.041) differed between G1 and G3 and transferring (p = 0.003) between G1 and G2. For the rigid object, waving was different between G1 and G3 (p = 0.018) whereas transferring behavior differed between G2 and G3 (p = 0.019). Total number of behaviors was significantly different between G1 and G2 for malleable (p = 0.019) and rigid objects (p = 0.009). Intragroup analysis revealed differences between malleable and rigid objects for transferring (p = 0.013), squeezing (p < 0.0001), fingering (p < 0.0001), and banging (p = 0.013) behaviors in infants from G1. Fingering and squeezing (p < 0.0001) were different between malleable and rigid objects in G2 (p = 0.009 and p < 0.0001) and G3 (p = 0.004 and p < 0.0001).Conclusion: Risk factors and object properties influence exploratory behaviors, mainly in low SES infants. Fingering and banging behaviors are favored by rigid objects, while squeezing is favored by malleable objects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: To compare the effects of two Active Video Game (AVG) protocols on transfer of learning in children with and without Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD)., Methods: Fifty children, aged 6-10 years were randomly allocated to either group A or B. Children in group A participated in a set of Nintendo Wii ball games whereas group B played agility games (8 DCD and 17 typically developing children (TD) per group). Participants in each group practiced Wii games for 20 min twice a week for 10 weeks. All children also practiced ball and agility games in real-world settings, once per week., Results: Both protocols yielded positive effects with the largest effect sizes shown on agility and balance items of the PERF-FIT and KTK tests. No interaction was found on learning real-world games and the virtual protocol, except for a Ping-Pong game. A significant interaction of time by protocol group indicated that the Ball group improved more on BOT-2-Upper-Limb Coordination than the Agility group. Importantly, children with DCD improved comparably with TD peers in virtual and real-world games., Conclusion: Independent of training protocol, both children with DCD and TD children performed better on trained and non-trained ball, balance and agility tasks after 10 weeks of training., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

This study empirically evaluates the psychometric properties of a new mother-answered developmental instrument for toddlers, the Toddler Language and Motor Questionnaire (TLMQ). Mothers of 1132 15- to 38-month-old children filled out a 144-item instrument, tapping the toddlers' competences in five language and motor subtests. Concurrent validity was investigated in an independent sample by administering the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities (MSCA) individually to 47 children and the TLMQ to their mothers. A two-factor solution emerged in principal axis factor analyses with a promax rotation, with motor subtests loading high on one of the factors and the language subtests on the other. Toddlers' genders significantly affected outcome on all of the five subtests. Divergent and convergent correlations emerged between the TLMQ's motor composite and scales of the MSCA. Partially convergent and divergent correlations emerged between the TLMQ's language composite and scales of the MSCA. The findings show that young children's motor and language development can be reliably and validly assessed by using a psychometrically constructed questionnaire completed by mothers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study examined the relationship between motor skills, participation in leisure activities and quality of life (QOL), within a temporal context (school year vs. summer vacation and school days vs. weekends). Parents of 22 children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) and of 55 typically developing children, aged 6–11, filled out two questionnaires relating to their children's participation in leisure activities (vigorous, moderate and sedentary) and QOL. The Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2) was administered to their children. Results showed that among the children with DCD, balance scores positively correlated with participation in sedentary activities, and in both groups both balance and aiming and catching were related to the physical and school aspects of QOL. Furthermore, participation in vigorous activities in the summer was positively correlated with social and school QOL. In contrast, among typically developing children, participation in vigorous activities during the school year was negatively correlated with school QOL. Finally, in both groups, participation in sedentary activities during school days was negatively correlated with school QOL. These results suggest that the parents’ perceptions of their children's QOL may be related to the level of activeness of the leisure activities but also to temporal aspects. Therefore, it is important that therapists and educators consider the temporal aspects, when consulting with parents and their children regarding participation in leisure activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents a review of the studies that have analysed the motor skills of ADHD children without medication and the influence of medication on their motor skills. The following two questions guided the study: What is the evidence of impairment of motor skills and aspects of motor control among children with ADHD aged between 6 and 16 years? What are the effects of ADHD medication on motor skills and motor control? The following keywords were introduced in the main databases: attention disorder and/or ADHD, motor skills and/or handwriting, children, medication. Of the 45 articles retrieved, 30 described motor skills of children with ADHD and 15 articles analysed the influence of ADHD medication on motor skills and motor control. More than half of the children with ADHD have difficulties with gross and fine motor skills. The children with ADHD inattentive subtype seem to present more impairment of fine motor skills, slow reaction time, and online motor control during complex tasks. The proportion of children with ADHD who improved their motor skills to the normal range by using medication varied from 28% to 67% between studies. The children who still show motor deficit while on medication might meet the diagnostic criteria of developmental coordination disorder (DCD). It is important to assess motor skills among children with ADHD because of the risk of reduced participation in activities of daily living that require motor coordination and attention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Standard intelligence tests such as the WPPSI-III have limitations when testing children with motor impairment. This study aimed to determine the proportion of children with cerebral palsy with sufficient verbal and motor skills to complete the WPPSI-III, to determine their comparative ability to complete tasks with and without a significant motor component, and to investigate short forms of the WPPSI-III as alternatives. Participants were 78 of 235 eligible 4-5 year old children with cerebral palsy resident in the Australian state of Victoria. Verbal IQ (VIQ), Performance IQ (PIQ), and Full-scale IQ (FSIQ) were determined using the WPPSI-III. Initial screening for pointing and verbal abilities determined which tests were attempted. The impact of speed was investigated by comparing scores on the Block Design subtest with and without an imposed time limit. FSIQ scores were calculated from two short forms of the WPPSI-III and compared to the full form. On screening, 16 children had inadequate pointing (14) and verbal abilities (2). FSIQ was obtained in 62 (82%) children. Strong associations were seen between completion of the entire test battery and topographical pattern, level of manual ability and level of gross motor function. Scores on subtests requiring manual ability were depressed relative to other scores. Children performed better using short forms of the WPPSI-III and, for a minority, when time limits were disregarded. In summary, children with cerebral palsy often lack the fine and gross motor skills necessary to complete the WPPSI-III, scoring relatively poorly on tasks requiring a fine motor response. Using short-form estimations of FSIQ comprised of subtests without a significant fine motor component has the potential to increase a child's FSIQ by approximately 5 points. These findings have important clinical implications when assessing a child with both motor and cognitive limitations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Children with mild ELD are less successful than controls in functional motor tests. [•] Notably more children with mild ELD have definite or borderline motor difficulties. [•] Girls with mild ELD have greater IS than controls in functional motor tests. [•] Boys with mild ELD make more mistakes in sensory and motor tests than controls. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Highlights: [•] Children who are overweight and obese have deficits in motor planning and skills. [•] We test kinematics and kinetics in children as they cross obstacles. [•] Participants had normal, overweight, and obese body mass index scores. [•] Impact of obesity on motor planning and skills is apparent with task constraints. [•] Mechanisms of deficits in planning and skills may be specific to this population. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]