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Municipal solid waste in developing countries mainly consists of degradable materials (>70%), which plays a significant role in GHG (Greenhouse gas) emissions in urban localities. The increasing municipal solid waste generation along with the high fraction of organic waste and its unscientific disposal is leading to emission of GHG (methane, CO 2 , etc.) in the atmosphere. Proportion of municipal solid wastes collected by the agencies disposed at identified sites is about 60%, while the balance is disposed-off at unauthorized disposal sites leading to the environmental consequences including greenhouse gas emissions. Mitigation strategy necessitates understanding of composition of waste for its treatment and management in an environmentally sound way. The study revealed that the per capita waste generated is about 91.01± 45.5 g/day with the per capita organic waste generation of 74±35 g/person/day. The household per capita waste generation was positively related with income and education levels, while negatively related with family (household) size. The organic fractions constitute 82% with the strong recovery potential and conversion to energy or compost range. The total organic waste generated is about 231.01 Gg/year and due to mismanagement consequent emissions are about 604.80 Gg/year. Integrated solid waste management strategy is suggested to manage the organic fractions through technology and policy interventions, which helps in mitigating GHG emissions with potential economic benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy consumption constitutes one of the important sources of carbon dioxide emission which cause global warming. This paper analyses greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions due to energy consumption in the domestic sector considering household activities and socioeconomic parameters. A stratified random survey of 1967 households in Bangalore pertaining to the energy consumption reveals that annual per capita electricity consumption ranges from 9.64 to 2337 kW h/year with an average of 336±267 kW h/year. Emission from most of the wards (66 wards) is about 10–15 Gg/year, while wards in peri-urban areas emit less than 10 Gg/year. Extrapolation of these, show that total carbon dioxide from all wards of Greater Bangalore accounts to 3350 Gg/Year. The energy consumption analyses reveal a proportional increase in the per capita energy consumption with the family income suggesting that economic levels in respective wards is an important parameter in the domestic energy consumption and also GHG emissions. Suggested interventions through large scale penetration of renewable sources of energy and energy conservation would help in reducing greenhouse gases and consequent warming of the Earth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Concentration of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere has been increasing rapidly during the last century due to ever increasing anthropogenic activities resulting in significant increases in the temperature of the Earth causing global warming. Major sources of GHG are forests (due to human induced land cover changes leading to deforestation), power generation (burning of fossil fuels), transportation (burning fossil fuel), agriculture (livestock, farming, rice cultivation and burning of crop residues), water bodies (wetlands), industry and urban activities (building, construction, transport, solid and liquid waste). Aggregation of GHG (CO 2 and non-CO 2 gases), in terms of Carbon dioxide equivalent (CO 2 e), indicate the GHG footprint. GHG footprint is thus a measure of the impact of human activities on the environment in terms of the amount of greenhouse gases produced. This study focuses on accounting of the amount of three important greenhouses gases namely carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane (CH 4 ) and nitrous oxide (N 2 O) and thereby developing GHG footprint of the major cities in India. National GHG inventories have been used for quantification of sector-wise greenhouse gas emissions. Country specific emission factors are used where all the emission factors are available. Default emission factors from IPCC guidelines are used when there are no country specific emission factors. Emission of each greenhouse gas is estimated by multiplying fuel consumption by the corresponding emission factor. The current study estimates GHG footprint or GHG emissions (in terms of CO 2 equivalent) for Indian major cities and explores the linkages with the population and GDP. GHG footprint (Aggregation of Carbon dioxide equivalent emissions of GHG’s) of Delhi, Greater Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Greater Bangalore, Hyderabad and Ahmedabad are found to be 38,633.2 Gg, 22,783.08 Gg, 14,812.10 Gg, 22,090.55 Gg, 19,796.5 Gg, 13,734.59 Gg and 91,24.45 Gg CO 2 eq., respectively. The major contributors sectors are transportation sector (contributing 32%, 17.4%, 13.3%, 19.5%, 43.5%, 56.86% and 25%), domestic sector (contributing 30.26%, 37.2%, 42.78%, 39%, 21.6%, 17.05% and 27.9%) and industrial sector (contributing 7.9%, 7.9%, 17.66%, 20.25%, 12.31%, 11.38% and 22.41%) of the total emissions in Delhi, Greater Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Greater Bangalore, Hyderabad and Ahmedabad, respectively. Chennai emits 4.79 t of CO 2 equivalent emissions per capita, the highest among all the cities followed by Kolkata which emits 3.29 t of CO 2 equivalent emissions per capita. Also Chennai emits the highest CO 2 equivalent emissions per GDP (2.55 t CO 2 eq./Lakh Rs.) followed by Greater Bangalore which emits 2.18 t CO 2 eq./Lakh Rs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rapidly depleting fossil fuel reserves with rising greenhouse gas levels (GHGs) in the atmosphere necessitate exploring alternate sustainable energy options. Biofuels from microalgae are emerging as a viable renewable energy resource owing to their inherent characteristics of higher biomass and lipid yield per hectare compared to other terrestrial bioenergy feedstocks. In this context, the present communication highlights the prospects of microalgal biofuel and other value-added products produced in a decentralized microalgal biorefinery in the flood plains (gazani lands) of the west coast of India. The spatial extent of potential sites for diatom cultivation estimated in three districts along the Indian west coast was 1940 ha. The opportunities for establishing biorefineries using diatoms as renewable bioenergy feedstocks were investigated through species prioritization, seasonal availability, tolerance, and biochemical composition analyses. Nitzschia and Amphora sp. were prioritized for lab-scale productivity studies based on their tolerance and macromolecular composition. When cultivated in a prototype biofilms-based bioreactor designed using gravel stones as substrates, Amphora sp. Yielded 16 times more productivity (0.56 g L−1) than conventional shake flask cultures. Design of a diatom biorefinery and its mass budgeting considering 100 kg dry biomass yielded ∼15–24 kg of biodiesel. Techno-economic assessment of biodiesel with value-added products of glycerol, biogas, and biofertilizer demonstrated a biodiesel production cost of 30.08–59.52 INR/kg of biodiesel. Harvesting cost in a hybrid mode using mechanized scrubbers and manual labour was estimated as 20 INR/kg of biomass. [Display omitted] • Evaluate the potential of diatoms as a source of biofuel with value-added products. • Biochemical composition and feedstock availability assessment across seasons. • Design and implementation of prototype algal reactor. • Economic feasibility assessment and mass budgeting of the diatom biorefinery. • Promising scope for a diatom biorefinery along the Indian central west coast. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Rapidly depleting stocks of fossil fuels and increasing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have necessitated the exploration of cost effective sustainable energy sources focussing on biofuels through algae. Abundant wastewaters generated in urban localities every day provide the nourishment to nurture algae for biofuel generation. The present communication focuses on the lipid prospects of algae grown in wastewater systems. Euglena sp., Spirogyra sp. and Phormidium sp. were collected from selected locations of sewage fed urban lakes and sewage treatment plants of Bangalore and Mysore. The total lipid content of Euglena sp. was higher (24.6%) compared to Spirogyra sp. (18.4%) followed by Phormidium sp. (8.8%) and their annual lipid yield potential was 6.52, 1.94 and 2.856t/ha/year, respectively. These species showed higher content of fatty acids (palmitate, stearate followed by oleic and linoleic acids) with the desirable biofuel properties. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Carbon footprint (CF) refers to the total amount of carbon dioxide and its equivalents emitted due to various anthropogenic activities. Carbon emission and sequestration inventories have been reviewed sector-wise for all federal states in India to identify the sectors and regions responsible for carbon imbalances. This would help in implementing appropriate climate change mitigation and management strategies at disaggregated levels. Major sectors of carbon emissions in India are through electricity generation, transport, domestic energy consumption, industries and agriculture. A majority of carbon storage occurs in forest biomass and soil. This paper focuses on the statewise carbon emissions (CO2, CO and CH4), using region specific emission factors and statewise carbon sequestration capacity. The estimate shows that CO2, CO and CH4 emissions from India are 965.9, 22.5 and 16.9Tg per year, respectively. Electricity generation contributes 35.5% of total CO2 emission, which is followed by the contribution from transport. Vehicular transport exclusively contributes 25.5% of total emission. The analysis shows that Maharashtra emits higher CO2, followed by Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. The carbon status, which is the ratio of annual carbon storage against carbon emission, for each federal state is computed. This shows that small states and union territories (UT) like Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram and Andaman and Nicobar Islands, where carbon sequestration is higher due to good vegetation cover, have carbon status >1. Annually, 7.35% of total carbon emissions get stored either in forest biomass or soil, out of which 34% is in Arunachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Orissa. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Solar hotspots are the regions characterized by an exceptional solar power potential suitable for decentralized commercial exploitation of energy. Identification of solar hotspots in a vast geographical expanse with dense habitations helps to meet escalating power demand in a decentralized, efficient and sustainable manner. This communication focuses on the assessment of resource potential with variability in India derived from high resolution satellite derived insolation data. Data analysis reveals that nearly 58% of the geographical area potentially represent the solar hotspots in the country with more than 5kWh/m2/day of annual average Global insolation. A techno-economic analysis of the solar power technologies and a prospective minimal utilization of the land available within these solar hotspots demonstrate their immense power generation as well as emission reduction potential. The study evaluates the progress made in solar power generation in the country especially with the inception of an ambitious National Solar Mission (NSM) also termed as ‘Solar India’. The organizational aspects of solar power generation with focus on existing policy elements are also addressed so as to probe the actual potential of the identified solar hotspots in meeting the NSM targets and beyond. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Rural population of India constitutes about 70% of the total population and traditional fuels account for 75% of the rural energy needs. Depletion of woodlands coupled with the persistent dependency on fuel wood has posed a serious problem for household energy provision in many parts. This study highlights that the traditional fuels still meet 85–95% of fuel needs in rural areas of Kolar district; people prefer fuel wood for cooking and agriculture residues for water heating and other purposes. However, rapid changes in land cover and land use in recent times have affected these traditional fuels availability necessitating inventorying, mapping and monitoring of bioresources for sustainable management of bioresources. Remote sensing data (Multispectal and Panchromatic), Geographic Information System (GIS), field surveys and non-destructive sampling were used to assess spatially the availability and demand of energy. Field surveys indicate that rural household depends on species such as Prosopis juliflora, Acacia nilotica, Acacia auriculiformis to meet fuel wood requirement for domestic activities. Hence, to take stock of fuel wood availability, mapping was done at species level (with 88% accuracy) considering villages as sampling units using fused multispectral and panchromatic data. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The energy planning endeavours for a particular region involves the finding of a set of sources and conversion devices so as to meet the energy requirement/demand of all the tasks in an optimal manner. This optimality depends on the objective to minimise the total annual cost of energy and the dependence on non-local resources or maximise the overall system efficiency. Factors such as availability of resources in the region and task energy requirements impose constraints on the regional energy planning exercise. Thus, regional energy planning turns out to be a constrained optimisation problem. This paper describes an optimum energy allocation using integrated energy planning approaches for Uttara Kannada district and makes a satisfying energy allocation plan for the years 2005, 2010 and 2015. Integrated energy planning gives an optimal mix of new/conventional energy sources and is developed based on decision support systems (DSS) approach. The central theme of the energy planning at decentralised level would be to prepare regional energy plans to meet energy needs and development of alternate energy sources at least- cost to the economy and environment. Regional integrated energy planning (RIEP) mechanism takes into account various available resources and demands in a region. This implies that the assessment of the demand supply and its intervention in the energy system, which may appear desirable due to such exercises, must be at a similar geographic scale. Regional energy planning exercises need to be flexible (to cope with rapidly changing energy systems) and easy to use. The application of DSS is a new approach to this problem. Towards the goal of implementing analytical methods for integrated planning, computerised decision-system provides useful assistance in the analyses of available information, the projection of future conditions, and the evaluation of alternative scenarios. Some of the features of DSS found particularly useful in regional energy planning are: (i) flexible structure—allows appropriate feasible levels of disaggregation, (ii) integrated nature—promotes a better overall understanding of many processes and concepts involved in planning, allowing planners to concentrate on specific energy subsectors, and (iii) iterative nature and easy scenario testing features—provide guidance in optimising data collection activities. Regional integrated energy plan (RIEP) is a computer-assisted accounting and simulation tool being developed to assist policy makers and planners at district and state level in evaluating energy policies and develop ecologically sound, sustainable energy plans. Energy availability and demand situation are projected for various scenarios (base case scenario, high-energy intensity, and transformation, state-growth scenarios) in order to get a glimpse of future patterns and assess the likely impacts of energy policies. The application of DSS for Uttara Kananda district energy planning focuses on renewable resources that could be harnessed for energy, land use database, sectorwise energy demand database and optimal allocation of energy resources for various tasks, and then explore the energy use consequences of alternative scenarios, such as, base case scenarios, high-energy intensity and improved end use efficiency options. Linear programming formulation for optimum allocation based on the cost minimisation objective shows that there is substantial savings of about 19.19% in energy and 36.24% cost reduction in overall energy system. Cost per unit (kWh) of energy with optimal allocation of energy is Rs. 0.31/kWh (as against Rs. 0.39/kWh without optimisation). Optimisation carried out with the objective of maximisation of efficiency of ‘ijk’ combination for all combinations shows energy saving of 19.98% and cost of energy as Rs. 0.34/kWh. The scenario analyses reveal that relatively vigorous growth in energy demand in Uttara Kannada district can be accomplished without exceeding available resources. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: An energy resource that is renewed by nature and whose supply is not affected by the rate of consumption is often termed as renewable energy. The need to search for renewable, alternate and non-polluting sources of energy assumes top priority for self-reliance in the regional energy supply. This demands an estimation of available energy resources spatially to evolve better management strategies for ensuring sustainability of resources. The spatial mapping of availability and demand of energy resources would help in the integrated regional energy planning through an appropriate energy supply–demand matching. This paper discusses the application of Geographical Information System (GIS) to map the renewable energy potential talukwise in Karnataka State, India. Taluk is an administrative division in the federal set-up in India to implement developmental programmes like dissemination of biogas, improved stoves, etc. Hence, this paper focuses talukwise mapping of renewable energy (solar, wind, bioenergy and small hydroenergy) potential for Karnataka using GIS. GIS helps in spatial and temporal analyses of the resources and demand and also aids as Decision Support System while implementing location-specific renewable energy technologies. Regions suitable for tapping solar energy are mapped based on global solar radiation data, which provides a picture of the potential. Coastal taluks in Uttara Kannada have higher global solar radiation during summer (6.31kWh/m2), monsoon (4.16kWh/m2) and winter (5.48kWh/m2). Mapping of regions suitable for tapping wind energy has been done based on wind velocity data, and it shows that Chikkodi taluk, Belgaum district, has higher potential during summer (6.06m/s), monsoon (8.27m/s) and winter (5.19m/s). Mysore district has the maximum number of small hydropower plants with a capacity of 36MW. Talukwise computation of bioenergy availability from agricultural residue, forest, horticulture, plantation and livestock indicates that Channagiri taluk in Shimoga district yields maximum bioenergy. The bioenergy status analysis shows that Siddapur taluk in Uttara Kannada district has the highest bioenergy status of 2.004 (ratio of bioresource availability and demand). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Energy is a vital component of any society playing a pivotal role in the development. Post oil crises shifted the focus of energy planners towards renewable resources and energy conservation. Biomass is one such renewable, which accounts for nearly 33% of a developing country’s energy needs. In India, it meets about 75% of the rural energy needs. In Karnataka, non-commercial energy sources like firewood, agricultural residues, charcoal and cow dung account for 53.2%. The energy released by the reaction of organic carbon (of bioresources) with oxygen is referred to as bioenergy. Bioresource availability is highly diversified and it depends on the region’s agroclimatic conditions. Inventorying of these resources is required for describing the quality, quantity, change, productivity, condition of bioresources and requirement in a given area. The present study assesses bioresource status across the agroclimatic zones of Karnataka, considering the bioenergy availability (from agriculture, horticulture, forests and plantations) and sector-wise energy demand (domestic, agriculture, industry, etc.).Bioresource availability is computed based on the compilation of data on the area and productivity of agriculture and horticulture crops, forests and plantations. Sector-wise energy demand is computed based on the National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO study) data, primary survey data and from the literature. Using the data of bioresource availability and demand, bioresource status is computed for all the agroclimatic zones. The ratio of bioresource availability to demand gives the bioresource status. The ratio greater than one indicates bioresource surplus zones, while a ratio less than one indicates scarcity.The study reveals that the central dry zone (1.4), the hilly zone (3.79), the southern transition zone (3.12) and the coastal zone (3.40) are bioresource surplus zones, whereas the northeastern transition zone (0.48), northeastern dry zone (0.23), northern dry zone (0.58), eastern dry zone (0.39), southern dry zone (0.93) and northern transition zone (0.45) come under bioresource-deficient zones. Among the bioresource surplus zones, horticulture residues contribute significantly towards bioenergy in the central dry zone, southern transition zone and the coastal zone, while in the hilly zone the main contributor of bioenergy are agricultural residues. Amidst the bioresource-deficient zones, agriculture is the major contributor of bioenergy in the northeastern transition zone (52%), northern dry zone (59%), and northern transition zone. Based on the bioenergy status of the zones and land use pattern, feasible management and technical options have been discussed, which help in optimising the available bioenergy and in building a sustainable energy society. This study also explores various programmes that can be initiated and implemented like social, community and joint forest management involving public participation. Such schemes will lessen the burden on the existing resources and also help the rural masses to procure biomass on a sustained basis. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Burgeoning dependence on fossil fuels for transport and industrial sectors has been posing challenges such as depletion of fossil fuel reserves, enhanced greenhouse gas (GHG) footprint, with the imminent changes in the climate, etc. This has necessitated an exploration of sustainable, eco-friendly and carbon neutral energy alternatives. Recent studies on biofuels indicate that algal biomass, particularly from marine macroalgae (seaweeds) have the potential to supplement oil fuel. Marine macroalgae are fast growing and carbohydrate rich biomass having advantage over other biofuel feedstock in terms of land dependence, freshwater requirements, not competing with food crops, which were the inherent drawback of the first- and second-generation feedstock. The present communication reviews the macroalgal feedstock availability, screening and selection of viable feedstock based on the biochemical composition, process involved, scope and opportunities in bioethanol production as well as technology interventions. The prospect of bioethanol production from algal feedstock of Central West Coast of India has been evaluated taking into account challenges (feedstock sustenance, technical feasibility, economic viability) in order to achieve energy sustainability. The green algae exhibited growth during all seasons and highest total carbohydrate was recorded from green seaweed Ulva lactuca (62.15 ± 12.8%). Elemental (CHN) analyses of seaweed samples indicate 25.31–37.95% of carbon, 4.52–6.48% hydrogen and 1.88–4.36% Nitrogen. Highest carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen content were recorded respectively from G.pusillum (C: 37.95%), G.pusillum (H: 6.48%) and E.intestinalis (N: 4.36%). Green seaweeds are rich in cellulose content (>10%) compared to other seaweeds (2–10%). Higher cellulose content was estimated in U.lactuca (14.03 ± 0.14%), followed by E.intestinalis (12.10 ± 0.53%) and C.media (10.53 ± 0.17%). Cellulose is a glucan present in green seaweeds, which can easily be hydrolysed through enzyme and subsequently fermented to produce bioethanol. Lower sugar removal in acid hydrolysate neutralization process (Na 2 CO 3) was recorded in U.lactuca (39.8%) and E.intestinalis (14.7%). Highest ethanol yield of 1.63 g and 0.49 g achieving 25.8% and 77.4% efficiency in SHF (Separate Hydrolysis and Fermentation) and SSF (Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation) process respectively was recorded for green alga E. intestinalis. Image 1 • Reviews the macroalgal feedstock availability, screening of viable feedstock based on the biochemical composition and process. • Scope and opportunities in bioethanol production as well as technology interventions. • Evaluated algal bioethanol prospects considering feedstock sustenance, technical feasibility, economic viability with energy sustainability. • Prioritization of potential macroalgal feedstock for bioethanol production based on biochemical composition. • The green algae exhibited growth in all the season and highest total carbohydrate in Ulva lactuca (62.15 ± 12.8%). • Highest ethanol yield of 1.63 g and 0.49 g achieving 25.8% and 77.4% efficiency in SHF and SSF process respectively was recorded for green alga E. intestinalis. • Potential sites identified in estuary for large scale algal cultivation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]