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Ground-based snowfall observations over Antarctica are rare due to the harsh environment and high logistical, equipment maintenance, and operational costs. Satellite measurements are crucial to provide continent-wide precipitation estimates, and this highlights the importance of validating the satellite estimates with measurements collected by ground-based Antarctic stations. The NASA CloudSat satellite, launched in 2006, is equipped with a 94 GHz (W-band) Cloud Profiling Radar (CPR) that provides measurements of reflectivity profiles of clouds and precipitation, whereas the incoming ESA/JAXA EarthCARE mission will add Doppler capability to a 94 GHz radar. This study explores how the synergy between two instruments available at most Antarctic stations, i.e., Micro Rain Radar (24 GHz, K-band) and laser disdrometer, can be used to validate satellite-borne W-band radar measurements, including Doppler estimates. A new validation methodology (K2W) was proposed to combine these instruments for simulating the 94 GHz reflectivity and Doppler measurements from Micro Rain Radar spectra. Assessment of the proposed K2W conversion methodology showed that the CloudSat Z e profiles can be simulated by the method with 0.2 dB mean difference at the lowest satellite radar range bin when time lag within ±12.5 min and the distance within 25 km around the CloudSat overpass were considered. With the K2W method, the 94 GHz Doppler velocity below 1 km altitude that would be observed by EarthCARE was obtained, and the standard deviation of the simulated Doppler velocity was found to be smaller than about 0.2 m s−1. The simulated 94 GHz Doppler radar profile information, which is less affected by attenuation compared to ground-based 94 GHz radar, will significantly improve the quantification of precipitation over Antarctica. This methodology will be applied to further assess the EarthCARE CPR Doppler velocity measurement accuracy as well as the Level 2 standard products for precipitation in Antarctica and at many other ground observation sites. • Synergy between 24 GHz Micro Rain Radar and disdrometer is used by K2W methodology • 94 GHz Doppler Spectra below 1 km were obtained in Antarctica • CloudSat radar reflectivity was evaluated within 0.2 dB by K2W • EarthCARE radar Doppler velocities are expected to be evaluated within 0.2 m s−1 • The wide applicability of K2W hugely raises opportunities for EarthCARE validation [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fire has a diverse range of impacts on Earth's physical and social systems. Accurate and up to date information on areas affected by fire is critical to better understand drivers of fire activity, as well as its relevance for biogeochemical cycles, climate, air quality, and to aid fire management. Mapping burned areas was traditionally done from field sketches. With the launch of the first Earth observation satellites, remote sensing quickly became a more practical alternative to detect burned areas, as they provide timely regional and global coverage of fire occurrence. This review paper explores the physical basis to detect burned area from satellite observations, describes the historical trends of using satellite sensors to monitor burned areas, summarizes the most recent approaches to map burned areas and evaluates the existing burned area products (both at global and regional scales). Finally, it identifies potential future opportunities to further improve burned area detection from Earth observation satellites. • A review of burned area trends in past 40 years of RS is performed. • Different sensors used for BA mapping presented, including Radar and Lidar. • Main burned area products are commented [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We have studied the regolith landform distribution in the area of Gaoua, western Burkina Faso, using an integration of geophysical and remote sensing data. Concentration maps of K, Th, U, as well as their ratios, were computed from airborne gamma-ray spectrometry data to assess the geochemical composition of the regolith. The mineralogy of the surfaces was mapped via the analysis of multispectral ASTER and Landsat scenes. Pauli-decomposition data retrieved from polarimetric ALOS PALSAR and Radarsat-2 images were included to characterize the surface properties of the regolith material. Morphometric variables such as slope, curvature, and relative relief were derived from the SRTM digital elevation model to quantify the topographic parameters of the different regolith landforms. An artificial neural network implementation, ADVANGEO, was then employed to extract four basic regolith landform units from the satellite and airborne data. Relic ferruginous duricrusts rich in hematite and goethite belonging to the High glacis, erosional surfaces represented by rock outcrops and suboutcrops, alluvial sediments, and soft pediment materials of the Middle and Low glacis were mapped successfully in the region. The results were compared with the existing geomorphological maps, an independent visual classification, and field observations. We found that the distribution and shape of the iron-rich duricrusts are more accurate than portrayed in the current maps. The best results, with an overall accuracy of 94.21% and a kappa value of 0.92, were obtained for a dataset consisting of gamma-ray spectrometry data combined with derivatives of the SRTM digital elevation model augmented by Landsat, and polarimetric radar data. The approach demonstrates for the first time the potential of machine learning in regolith landform mapping. The proposed combined analysis of airborne geophysics and remote sensing data can be adopted easily in other regions with similar long-term lateritic weathering histories worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Civil marine radar, which operates at a low grazing-incidence angle and with horizontal polarization in transmitting and receiving, can be modified and used as a primary tool for surface wave monitoring. The high spatial resolutions of sea-clutter image sequences from X-band radar offer a means of deriving individual waves and wave field at low-cost. However, the performance of X-band radar is impaired under rainy conditions, which are usually accompanied by the severe weather at sea. In the present study, we examine the effectiveness of S-band radar for wave measurements under precipitation. The results of comprehensive comparative studies with sea-truth data show that S-band radar is capable of carrying out wave measurements in rainy conditions. Although the longer wavelength of the S-band leads to a coarser resolution of radar imagery, the S-band radar features at least the equivalent performance of the X-band system in non-rainy conditions, in terms of wave height measurement. The results suggest that the S-band and X-band could be complementary systems. In rainy conditions the S-band is more efficient but in the non-rainy periods the X-band gives more confident results. The relationship of significant wave height with radar signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), and the modulation transfer function (MTF) between radar spectrum and wave spectrum for the used X-band and S-band radars are established and discussed in this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is ongoing interest to develop remote sensing methods for mapping and monitoring the spatial distribution and biomass of mangroves. In this study, we develop a suite of methods to evaluate the combination of Landsat-8, ALOS PALSAR, and SRTM data for mapping spatial distribution of mangrove composition, canopy height, and aboveground biomass in the wide intertidal zones and coastal plains of Mimika district, Papua, Indonesia. Image segmentation followed by visual interpretation of composite PALSAR images was used to delineate mangrove areas, whereas a flexible statistical rule based classification of spectral signatures from Landsat-8 images was used to classify mangrove associations. The overall accuracy of land cover classification was 94.38% with a kappa coefficient of 0.94 when validated with field inventory data and Google Earth images. Mangrove height and aboveground biomass were mapped using the SRTM DEM, which were calibrated with field-measured data via quantile regression models. There was a strong correlation between the SRTM DEM and the 0.98 quantile of field canopy heights (H .98 ), which was used to represent the tallest trees in each of 196 10 m radius subplots (r = 0.84 and R 2 = 0.804). Model performance was evaluated through 10,000 bootstrapped simulations, producing a mean absolute error (MAE) of 3.0 m for canopy height estimation over 30 m pixels of SRTM data. Quantile regression revealed a relatively strong non-linear relationship between the SRTM derived canopy height model and aboveground biomass measured in 0.5 ha mangrove inventory plots (n = 33, R 2 = 0.46). The model results produced estimates of mean standing biomass of 237.52 ± 98.2 Mg/ha in short canopy ( Avicennia / Sonneratia ) stands to 353.52 ± 98.43 Mg/ha in mature tall canopy ( Rhizophora ) dominated forest. The model estimates of mangrove biomass were within 90% confidence intervals of area-weighted biomass derived from field measurements. When validated at the landscape scale, the difference between modeled and measured aboveground mangrove biomass was 3.48% with MAE of 105.75 Mg/ha. These results indicate that the approaches developed here are reliable for mapping and monitoring mangrove composition, height, and biomass over large areas of Indonesia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mapping of settlement areas from space is entering a new era. With the recently developed Global Urban Footprint (based on radar data from TanDEM-X) and the Global Human Settlement Layer (based on optical data), two new initiatives that promise to map complex settlement patterns at global scales and unprecedented spatial resolutions are about to enter the scientific and map user community. However, comparative studies on these layers' strengths and weaknesses, especially in terms of their potential added value with regard to existing lower resolution maps, as well as their assessed accuracy are still absent. In this regard, we introduce a multi-scale cross-comparison framework that uses the best existing urban maps as a benchmark. To paint a complete picture, we simultaneously address several components of map accuracy including relative inter-map agreement, absolute accuracies and pattern-based classification differences. This framework is applied to present regionally representative results from two Central European test sites. In this, we find that the new base maps bring decisive advancements in preserving the small-scale complexity of global human settlement patterns beyond urban core areas. Relative inter-map comparison exposes low density settlement regions traditionally under-represented by lower resolution maps that are now recognized. Absolute metrics such as the Kappa coefficient of agreement ( K ) show that accuracies of the new high resolution layers ( K ¯ = 0.56–0.58) nearly double those of existing products. Beyond, they feature substantial consistency between urban ( K ¯ = 0.46–0.50) and rural landscapes ( K ¯ = 0.41–0.45). Results from pattern-based exploration further reveal significant correlation of accuracies with physical pattern variations such as settlement density and mark a clear shift of accuracies from large to medium and small patch sizes. This differentiated view on classification accuracies shows that the new generation of urban maps constitutes a significantly enhanced spatial representation of large-scale settlement patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Estimates of forest biomass are needed for various technical and scientific applications, ranging from carbon and bioenergy policies to sustainable forest management. As local measurements are costly, there is a great interest in obtaining reliable estimates over large areas from remote sensing data. Currently, such estimates are obtained with a variety of data sources, statistical methods and prediction standards, and there is no agreement on what are best practices for this task. To improve our understanding of how these different methods affect prediction quality, we first conducted a systematic review of the available literature to identify the most common sensor types and prediction methods. Based on the review, we identified sample size of the reference points on the ground, prediction method (stepwise linear regression, support vector machines, random forest, Gaussian processes and k-nearest neighbor), and sensor type as the main differences that could potentially affect predictive quality. We then compared those factors in two case study areas in Germany and Chile, for which airborne discrete return Light Detection And Ranging (LiDAR) and airborne hyperspectral as well as airborne discrete return LiDAR and spaceborne hyperspectral data were available. For each factor combination, we calculated Pearson's coefficient of correlation between observations and predictions (r 2 ) and root mean squared error (RMSE) for bootstrapped estimates using k-fold cross-validation with a varying number of folds. Finally, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to quantify the influence of the factors on the predictive error of the biomass models. Our results confirm previous findings that predictor data (sensor) type is the most important factor for the accuracy of biomass estimates, with LiDAR being preferable to hyperspectral data. In contrast to some previous studies, complementing LiDAR with hyperspectral data did not improve predictive accuracy. Also the prediction method had a substantial effect on accuracy and was generally more important than the sample size. In most cases, random forest performed best and stepwise linear models worst, judging from r 2 and RMSE under cross-validation. Additional results suggested that r 2 may deliver unrealistically large values when the hold-out sample during the cross-validation is too small. In conclusion, our literature review revealed that different methods for biomass estimation are currently used, with no general agreement on best practices. In our case studies, we found substantial accuracy differences between those methods, with LiDAR data, in combination with a random forest algorithm and a large number of reference sample units on the ground yielding the lowest error for biomass predictions. The comparatively high importance of the statistical prediction method seems particularly relevant, as they suggest that choosing the appropriate statistical method may be more effective than obtaining additional field data for obtaining good biomass estimates. Considering the costs of improving accuracy of global and regional biomass estimates by ground measurements, it seems sensible to invest in further comparative studies, preferably with a wider range of sites and including also RADAR sensors, to establish robust best-practice recommendations for obtaining regional and global biomass estimates from remote-sensing data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accurate inventories of grasslands are important for studies of carbon dynamics, biodiversity conservation and agricultural management. For regions with persistent cloud cover the use of multi-temporal synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data provides an attractive solution for generating up-to-date inventories of grasslands. This is even more appealing considering the data that will be available from upcoming missions such as Sentinel-1 and ALOS-2. In this study, the performance of three machine learning algorithms; Random Forests (RF), Support Vector Machines (SVM) and the relatively underused Extremely Randomised Trees (ERT) is evaluated for discriminating between grassland types over two large heterogeneous areas of Ireland using multi-temporal, multi-sensor radar and ancillary spatial datasets. A detailed accuracy assessment shows the efficacy of the three algorithms to classify different types of grasslands. Overall accuracies ≥ 88.7% (with kappa coefficient of 0.87) were achieved for the single frequency classifications and maximum accuracies of 97.9% (kappa coefficient of 0.98) for the combined frequency classifications. For most datasets, the ERT classifier outperforms SVM and RF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Glaciers in polar regions are sensitive to climate and ocean changes and can thin rapidly as a consequence of global warming. Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) from remote sensing observations have been widely used to detect changes in polar glaciers. DEMs from Terrestrial Radar Interferometer (TRI) have recently been used for high frequency glacier change and glacier-ocean interaction studies. However, it is unclear whether TRI DEM over a large study area can be combined directly with remote sensing observations to investigate glacier changes as well as the accuracy of TRI DEM at far range. In this study, we deployed a TRI close to Helheim Glacier, East Greenland and generated DEMs using TRI and satellite laser altimetry. We analyzed the accuracy of the TRI DEM using theoretical calculations, comparisons based on repeat observations, and comparisons with a high accurate ArcticDEM. The validation results suggest that for stable ground surfaces, the uncertainty (standard deviation) is <5 m at range < 9.8 km. Averaging across time (e.g. one hour) decreases the uncertainty almost linearly with range, over 0.5 m to 1.2 m when the range increases from 7.0 km to 10.0 km. Increasing the correlation coefficient threshold for phase unwrapping does not significantly reduce uncertainty. TRI DEMs are influenced by systematic error at far range primarily due to coarse azimuth resolution and phase unwrapping difficulties in discontinuous interferograms. As the absolute accuracy of TRI DEMs is not uniformly distributed in the range direction (farther points have worse uncertainty), our findings indicate that TRI DEMs within range of 10 km can reach <5 m uncertainty, which can be compared with DEMs obtained from remote sensing satellites to detect glacier thinning. • A method to generate TRI DEM referring to WGS-84 ellipsoid is presented. • Averaging across time decreases the DEM uncertainty almost linearly with range. • Increasing correlation coefficient threshold does not significantly improve TRI DEM. • Large uncertainty at far range is caused by coarser azimuth resolution and discontinuous interferogram. • TRI DEMs with range < 10 km have <5 m uncertainty and can match satellite observations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Radar altimeters are important tools to monitor the volume of the ice sheets. The penetration of radar waves in the snowpack is a major source of uncertainty to retrieve surface elevation. To correct this effect, a better understanding of the sensitivity of the radar waveforms to snow properties is needed. Here, we present an extension of the Snow Model Radiative Transfer (SMRT) to compute radar waveforms and conduct a series of simulations on the Antarctic ice sheet. SMRT is driven by snow and surface roughness properties measured over a large latitudinal range during two field campaigns on the Antarctic Plateau. These measurements show that the snowpack is rougher, denser, less stratified, warmer, and has smaller snow grains near the coast than on the central Plateau. These simulations are compared to satellite observations in the Ka, Ku, and S bands. SMRT reproduces the observed waveforms well. For all sites and all sensors, the main contribution comes from the surface echo. The echo from snow grains (volume scattering) represents up to 40% of the amplitude of the total waveform power in the Ka band, and less at the lower frequencies. The highest amplitude is observed on the central Plateau due to the combination of higher reflection from the surface, higher scattering by snow grains in the Ka and Ku bands, and higher inter-layer reflections in the S band. In the Ka band, the wave penetrates in the snowpack less deeply on the central Plateau than near the coast because of the strong scattering caused by the larger snow grains. The opposite is observed in the S band, the wave penetrates deeper on the central Plateau because of the lower absorption due to the lower snow temperatures. The elevation bias caused by wave penetration into the snowpack show a constant bias of 10 cm for all sites in the Ka band, and a bias of 11 cm, and 21 cm in the Ku band for sites close to the coast and the central Plateau, respectively. Now that SMRT is performing waveform simulations, further work will address how the snowpack properties affect the parameters retrieved by more advanced retracking algorithms such as ICE-2 for different snow cover surfaces. • The snow radiative transfer model (SMRT) is extended for altimetry applications. • Waveform simulations are in good agreement with satellite observations in Antarctica. • The surface echo is the most important contribution in the Ka, Ku and S bands. • Smoother surfaces at the southern sites lead to higher waveform amplitudes. • In the Ka (resp. S) band, grain size (temperature) regulates the wave penetration depth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]