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Accurate and stable positioning is significant for vehicle navigation systems, especially in complex urban environments. However, urban canyons and dynamic interference make vehicle sensors prone to disturbance, leading to vehicle positioning errors and even failures. To address these issues, an adaptive loosely coupled IMU/GNSS/LiDAR integrated navigation system based on factor graph optimization with sensor weight optimization and fault detection is proposed. First, the factor nodes and system framework are constructed based on error models of sensors, and the optimization method principle is derived. Second, the interactive multiple-model algorithm based on factor graph optimization (IMMFGO) is utilized to calculate and adjust sensor weights for global optimization, which will reduce the impact of disturbed sensors. Finally, a multi-stage fault detection, isolation, and recovery (MSFDIR) strategy is implemented based on the IMMFGO results and IMU pre-integration measurements, which can detect significant sensor faults and optimize the system structure. Vehicle experiments show that our IMMFGO method generally obtains better performance in positioning accuracy by 23.7% compared to adaptive factor graph optimization (AFGO) methods, and the MSFDIR strategy possesses the capability of fault sensor detection, which provides an essential reference for multi-source vehicle navigation systems in urban canyons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Detecting multiple human targets in indoor scenarios using ultra-wideband (UWB) radar usually involves false detection results caused by the secondary reflections, which might reduce the target detection accuracy and cause a more severe deterioration when the number of targets increases. This article proposed a two-step accuracy improvement method for multitarget detection in environments with multiple human targets of more than three and strong secondary reflections by the surroundings, especially the walls. Based on the rough detection results acquired by the modified CA-CFAR (MCA-CFAR) processing, the first step achieves the primary false alarm suppression using a short-window accumulation in the time domain. Then, the second step applies the decision confidence on the detection results from the first step to assess the reliability of results for improved accuracy. The two-step accuracy improvement could thus have a higher accuracy through cascading false alarm suppression. The effectiveness and accuracy of the proposed algorithm are verified based on the experimental results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accurate and stable positioning is significant for vehicle navigation systems, especially in complex urban environments. However, urban canyons and dynamic interference make vehicle sensors prone to disturbance, leading to vehicle positioning errors and even failures. To address these issues, an adaptive loosely coupled IMU/GNSS/LiDAR integrated navigation system based on factor graph optimization with sensor weight optimization and fault detection is proposed. First, the factor nodes and system framework are constructed based on error models of sensors, and the optimization method principle is derived. Second, the interactive multiple-model algorithm based on factor graph optimization (IMMFGO) is utilized to calculate and adjust sensor weights for global optimization, which will reduce the impact of disturbed sensors. Finally, a multi-stage fault detection, isolation, and recovery (MSFDIR) strategy is implemented based on the IMMFGO results and IMU pre-integration measurements, which can detect significant sensor faults and optimize the system structure. Vehicle experiments show that our IMMFGO method generally obtains better performance in positioning accuracy by 23.7% compared to adaptive factor graph optimization (AFGO) methods, and the MSFDIR strategy possesses the capability of fault sensor detection, which provides an essential reference for multi-source vehicle navigation systems in urban canyons.

The indoor environment is typically a complex time-varying environment. At present, the problem of indoor modeling is still a hot research topic for scholars at home and abroad. This paper primarily studies indoor time-varying space. On the basis of the Beidou grid framework and time coding model, in the first scenario, a local space subdivision framework based on Beidou is proposed. The necessity of local space subdivision framework is analyzed. In the second scenario, based on the time coding model needle, a local temporal subdivision model, more suitable for a short time domain, is proposed. Then, for the spatial modeling of an indoor time-varying environment, an indoor time-varying mesh frame based on global subdivision, local space subdivision, and local time subdivision is proposed. Using this framework, the indoor environment is represented by the space–time grid, and the basic storage data structure is designed. Finally, the experiment of local subdivision coding in the indoor space–time grid, indoor space–time grid modeling, and an organization experiment is carried out using real data and simulation data. The experimental results verify the feasibility and correctness of the encoding and decoding algorithm of local subdivision encoding in space–time encoding and the calculation algorithm of the space–time relationship. The experimental results also verify the multi-space organization and the management ability of the indoor space–time grid model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Detecting multiple human targets in indoor scenarios using ultra-wideband (UWB) radar usually involves false detection results caused by the secondary reflections, which might reduce the target detection accuracy and cause a more severe deterioration when the number of targets increases. This article proposed a two-step accuracy improvement method for multitarget detection in environments with multiple human targets of more than three and strong secondary reflections by the surroundings, especially the walls. Based on the rough detection results acquired by the modified CA-CFAR (MCA-CFAR) processing, the first step achieves the primary false alarm suppression using a short-window accumulation in the time domain. Then, the second step applies the decision confidence on the detection results from the first step to assess the reliability of results for improved accuracy. The two-step accuracy improvement could thus have a higher accuracy through cascading false alarm suppression. The effectiveness and accuracy of the proposed algorithm are verified based on the experimental results.

Smart vehicles with embedded Autonomous Vehicle (AV) technologies are currently equipped with different types of mounted sensors, aiming to ensure safe movement for both passengers and other road users. The sensors' ability to capture and gather data to be synchronically interpreted by neural networks for a clear understanding of the surroundings is influenced by lighting conditions, such as natural lighting levels, artificial lighting effects, time of day, and various weather conditions, such as rain, fog, haze, and extreme temperatures. Such changing environmental conditions are also known as complex environments. In addition, the appearance of other road users is varied and relative to the vehicle's perspective; thus, the identification of features in a complex background is still a challenge. This paper presents a pre-processing method using multi-sensorial RGB and thermal camera data. The aim is to handle issues arising from the combined inputs of multiple sensors, such as data registration and value unification. Foreground refinement, followed by a novel statistical anomaly-based feature extraction prior to image fusion, is presented. The results met the AV challenges in CNN's classification. The reduction of the collected data and its variation level was achieved. The unified physical value contributed to the robustness of input data, providing a better perception of the surroundings under varied environmental conditions in mixed datasets for day and night images. The method presented uses fused images, robustly enriched with texture and feature depth and reduced dependency on lighting or environmental conditions, as an input for a CNN. The CNN was capable of extracting and classifying dynamic objects as vehicles and pedestrians from the complex background in both daylight and nightlight images. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The indoor environment is typically a complex time-varying environment. At present, the problem of indoor modeling is still a hot research topic for scholars at home and abroad. This paper primarily studies indoor time-varying space. On the basis of the Beidou grid framework and time coding model, in the first scenario, a local space subdivision framework based on Beidou is proposed. The necessity of local space subdivision framework is analyzed. In the second scenario, based on the time coding model needle, a local temporal subdivision model, more suitable for a short time domain, is proposed. Then, for the spatial modeling of an indoor time-varying environment, an indoor time-varying mesh frame based on global subdivision, local space subdivision, and local time subdivision is proposed. Using this framework, the indoor environment is represented by the space–time grid, and the basic storage data structure is designed. Finally, the experiment of local subdivision coding in the indoor space–time grid, indoor space–time grid modeling, and an organization experiment is carried out using real data and simulation data. The experimental results verify the feasibility and correctness of the encoding and decoding algorithm of local subdivision encoding in space–time encoding and the calculation algorithm of the space–time relationship. The experimental results also verify the multi-space organization and the management ability of the indoor space–time grid model.

Smart vehicles with embedded Autonomous Vehicle (AV) technologies are currently equipped with different types of mounted sensors, aiming to ensure safe movement for both passengers and other road users. The sensors’ ability to capture and gather data to be synchronically interpreted by neural networks for a clear understanding of the surroundings is influenced by lighting conditions, such as natural lighting levels, artificial lighting effects, time of day, and various weather conditions, such as rain, fog, haze, and extreme temperatures. Such changing environmental conditions are also known as complex environments. In addition, the appearance of other road users is varied and relative to the vehicle’s perspective; thus, the identification of features in a complex background is still a challenge. This paper presents a pre-processing method using multi-sensorial RGB and thermal camera data. The aim is to handle issues arising from the combined inputs of multiple sensors, such as data registration and value unification. Foreground refinement, followed by a novel statistical anomaly-based feature extraction prior to image fusion, is presented. The results met the AV challenges in CNN’s classification. The reduction of the collected data and its variation level was achieved. The unified physical value contributed to the robustness of input data, providing a better perception of the surroundings under varied environmental conditions in mixed datasets for day and night images. The method presented uses fused images, robustly enriched with texture and feature depth and reduced dependency on lighting or environmental conditions, as an input for a CNN. The CNN was capable of extracting and classifying dynamic objects as vehicles and pedestrians from the complex background in both daylight and nightlight images.

The survival rate of seedlings is a decisive factor of afforestation assessment. Generally, ground checking is more accurate than any other methods. However, the survival rate of seedlings can be higher in the growing season, and this can be estimated in a larger area at a relatively lower cost by extracting the tree crown from the unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) images, which provides an opportunity for monitoring afforestation in an extensive area. At present, studies on extracting individual tree crowns under the complex ground vegetation conditions are limited. Based on the afforestation images obtained by airborne consumer-grade cameras in central China, this study proposes a method of extracting and fusing multiple radii morphological features to obtain the potential crown. A random forest (RF) was used to identify the regions extracted from the images, and then the recognized crown regions were fused selectively according to the distance. A low-cost individual crown recognition framework was constructed for rapid checking of planted trees. The method was tested in two afforestation areas of 5950 m2 and 5840 m2, with a population of 2418 trees (Koelreuteria) in total. Due to the complex terrain of the sample plot, high weed coverage, the crown width of trees, and spacing of saplings vary greatly, which increases both the difficulty and complexity of crown extraction. Nevertheless, recall and F-score of the proposed method reached 93.29%, 91.22%, and 92.24% precisions, respectively, and 2212 trees were correctly recognized and located. The results show that the proposed method is robust to the change of brightness and to splitting up of a multi-directional tree crown, and is an automatic solution for afforestation verification.

The survival rate of seedlings is a decisive factor of afforestation assessment. Generally, ground checking is more accurate than any other methods. However, the survival rate of seedlings can be higher in the growing season, and this can be estimated in a larger area at a relatively lower cost by extracting the tree crown from the unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) images, which provides an opportunity for monitoring afforestation in an extensive area. At present, studies on extracting individual tree crowns under the complex ground vegetation conditions are limited. Based on the afforestation images obtained by airborne consumer-grade cameras in central China, this study proposes a method of extracting and fusing multiple radii morphological features to obtain the potential crown. A random forest (RF) was used to identify the regions extracted from the images, and then the recognized crown regions were fused selectively according to the distance. A low-cost individual crown recognition framework was constructed for rapid checking of planted trees. The method was tested in two afforestation areas of 5950 m2 and 5840 m2, with a population of 2418 trees (Koelreuteria) in total. Due to the complex terrain of the sample plot, high weed coverage, the crown width of trees, and spacing of saplings vary greatly, which increases both the difficulty and complexity of crown extraction. Nevertheless, recall and F-score of the proposed method reached 93.29%, 91.22%, and 92.24% precisions, respectively, and 2212 trees were correctly recognized and located. The results show that the proposed method is robust to the change of brightness and to splitting up of a multi-directional tree crown, and is an automatic solution for afforestation verification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]