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Here we present loess deposits since the late glacial dated by OSL technique in the southeast of the Caspian Sea, bordering continents of Asia and Europe. Chronology of Holocene loess deposits are rarely reported in Eastern Europe and Western Asia, especially for their spacious mid-latitude adjacent region, between Balkans to the west and Pamirs to the east. In this study, an OSL-based chronology was developed for loess deposits in northern Iranian Plateau, based on the YBD loess profile which locates close to center of hilly Iranian Loess Plateau in the southeast of the Caspian Sea and on the northern slope of the Alborz Mountains. The OSL characteristics and their reliability were investigated on coarse-grained quartz (63–90 μm) of the profile, a preheat plateau test and dose recovery test of which reveal that the lower preheat is suitable for loess equivalent dose determination in the area. In addition, the SAR-OSL is an appropriate methodology for dating loess deposited since the late glacial in situ. With preservation of a complete record of loess accumulation since the late glacial, YBD section contains a potentially valuable paleoclimatic record for Caspian region and hence the vast transitional region between Asia and Europe.

The North Jiangsu Basin (NJB), located in the western part of the North Jiangsu-South Yellow Sea Basin, is a critical region providing invaluable archives about the evolution processes of the land-ocean interchange and climatic environments in a coastal zone. Chronology is of crucial importance to reconstruct the timing of sea-level eustacy, and shoreline changes, as well as the evolution of the regional environment by means of numerical dating to determine the age of sedimentary strata in the sea–land interaction zone of the NJB. However, sediment dating in the NJB remains controversial due to limitations in the quantity and quality of chronological data. Therefore, the sediments in the Jianhu Gangxi (GX) profile of the NJB were analyzed in this study by applying both fine-grained quartz optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating and 14C dating. The results were used to discuss the processes of regional environment evolution. The OSL dating of fine-grained quartz components in sediments was found to be a reliable method to determine deposition ages of sediments in the land-sea interaction zone in the NJB. The combination of OSL and accelerator mass spectrometry 14C dating techniques allowed a reliable and high-resolution chronological framework for the GX profile. Since the last glaciation, the sedimentary environment in the eastern portion of the NJB changed significantly. In particular: (1) between 13 and 7.25 ka B.P, the area of interest was dominated by lacustrine deposition within a stable sedimentary environment with low deposition rates; (2) from 7.25 to 6.45 ka B.P, marine transgression events occurred, and the deposition rate increased rapidly in an area of land-sea interaction; (3) after 6.45 ka B.P, a regression event occurred, and the study area transformed into a lowland lake environment.

Stable carbon and oxygen isotope compositions in soil carbonates and in soil organic matter provide insights into (paleo) climatic conditions, especially in arid and semiarid regions where carbonate is abundant in soils. We here investigate δ13C and δ18O isotope composition of bulk carbonate, pedogenic carbonate nodules and organic carbon from modern soils developed along a precipitation gradient (Entisol, Inceptisol, Mollisol and Alfisol) and paleosols formed within loess units in northern Iran. δ13C values of organic carbon in the modern soils ranged from −19.5‰ in the arid and semiarid regions to −24‰ in the more humid regions with forest vegetation. δ13C values of bulk carbonate in the modern soils ranged from −12.1‰ at the wettest sites to −0.8‰ at the drier sites and thus, a 550 mm increase in precipitation leads to a ~11‰ decrease in δ13C values of bulk carbonate. In the modern soils, δ13C values of pedogenic carbonate nodules in the semiarid areas show higher values by ~3–4‰ more than the regions with forest vegetation. Unlike δ13C values of pedogenic carbonate nodules the δ18O values of pedogenic carbonate nodules of modern soils in this study did not display pronounced changes across the sections. The change in δ13C of carbonates and organic carbon is consistent with the present above-ground vegetation, consisting of a mosaic of habitats with differences in the proportion of C3 and C4 vegetation tending to larger C4 contribution with increasing aridity. The δ13C values of carbonates coupled with climate data of the region confirm seasonal bias in the formation of carbonate nodules in the modern soils seen in studies elsewhere. The δ13C values of pedogenic carbonate nodules in the paleosols range from −10‰ in humid areas to −7.2‰ in semiarid areas. The trends in δ13C composition in modern soils are also visible in the δ13C composition in the paleosols, suggesting that in the foothills of the Alborz and Iranian loess plateau, a precipitation gradient existed also in the last interglacial.

In the Golestan province in northern Iran extensive loess deposits, and widespread loess-derived soils crop out. While a strong precipitation gradient (200–700 mm per year) from North to South is characteristic, temperature differences are negligible (17–18 °C per year). Recently, many studies on loess-derived palaeosols and modern soils from this region were published; However, in these publications only limited information on the magnetic properties of loess and loess-derived soils is given, nor the potential of these properties to be applied as proxies for palaeoclimate reconstruction. In order to study soil magnetic properties along the precipitation gradient in the Golestan province, six pedons of modern soils were selected. The physicochemical properties, the clay mineralogy and magnetic parameters of soil samples were analysed. Susceptibility measurements (20.2–130.77 × 10−8 m3kg−1), ARM susceptibility values (0.00489–0.068 m3kg-1), IRM values (0.0027–0.0105 Am2kg−1), and hysteresis measurements provide significant evidences for an increase of the content of fine grained ferromagnetic minerals with increasing mean annual precipitation. Simultaneously, the amount of SP sized particles increase. Magnetite, maghemite, and hematite are the major magnetic minerals in the studied samples, whereby magnetite seems to be dominant in the soils of the loess plateau of northern Iran. By presenting data from this region of the northern Iran for the first time, another example is provided for the application of magnetic properties as proxies for the reconstruction of the paleoclimate. The results are compared to data of the Chinese loess plateau, the Russian steppe and loessic soils from the midwestern United State with similar relations of pedogenic susceptibility and MAP.

The loess-palaeosol record on the island of Susak in Croatia is a unique archive of Late Glacial climate changes in the Adriatic region, possibly even in the wider area. On Susak up to 90 m of thick Quaternary sediments were deposited, and are accessible for detailed palaeoclimate reconstructions. In this paper, the results of a high-resolution grain-size and rock magnetic investigation on the Last Glacial (Upper Pleniglacial) Sand Pit section from Susak are presented. In spite of its significant thickness, the Sand Pit section does not represent a continuous record; it is a result of a very dynamic environment. There, the deposition of dust and formation of loess has been interrupted by pedogenesis, periods of increased sand accumulation, erosion due to slope wash and water activity, redeposition and wildfires, and all in the time period of about 10.000 years of the Upper Pleniglacial, as seen from the IRSL dating results. The grain-size data clearly show a shift towards coarser grain sizes which differs from typical loess regions. Such predominance of the coarser-grained over the fine-grained fraction, very likely resulted from the predominance of deposition over pedogenesis, increased wind activity and proximal source of material. The rock magnetic signal preserved in the sediment also differs compared to loess-palaeosol records from other regions. The susceptibility values are several times higher than in the records from the Pannonian basin and from typical Eurasian loess. Both the increased susceptibility values and the grain-size are very likely the result of a significant proximal material input from the Po River plain.

A polygenetic soil formed on Late Glacial Loess on the Island of Susak was investigated by means of high-resolution depth approach to give pedosedimentary and palaeoenvironmental reconstructions of the Late Glacial/Holocene pedosequence. The complete polygenetic profile (A-2C1-2C2-3Btb-4Ck), defined as Eutric Leptic Regosol (Geoabruptic, Siltic, Ruptic) over Argic horizon over loess deposit, is a result of the interaction of the sediments (loess) with environmental conditions from the Late Glacial throughout the Holocene. Both normal pedogenesis and erosion/sedimentation-driven pedogenesis influenced its development. Therefore, this profile bears valuable imprints of climate, vegetation, land surface, and land use changes in this part of the Adriatic area for the time period covering the past 16 ka. The 4Ck horizon is a remnant of an A-C soil profile, whose incipient formation corresponds to a steppe-like palaeo-vegetation and a semi-humid to semi-arid palaeo-climate. The 3Btb horizon has blocky structure; common clay coatings and infillings that are related to the walls of channel macrovoids; increased CIA, Al/Si and Ba/Sr ratios due to the increase of the Al and clay contents; highest Fet, Fed, Mnt and Mnd values due to abundant redox concentrations; and specific clay mineralogy. Since the obtained age of the loess deposit (4Ck horizon) underlying the 3Btb horizon is 16.1 ± 1.3 ka (can be correlated to the Late Glacial Maximum, i.e., OIS-2), we find that the period of the Bolling-Allerod warming might have enabled the formation of the highly weathered 3Btb horizon within a Luvisol-like soil. After the period of surface stability, a period of forest decay and surface instability took place, resulting with the erosion of the Luvisol. The 3Btb horizon was then covered with a homogeneous loess material (whose deposition can presumably be related to the Younger Dryas period), inside of which the horizons 2C1 and 2C2 are recognized. Both these horizons are negligibly affected by pedogenesis and contain artefacts. The incipient soil formation in the upper part of the profile, along with the irregular lower boundary of the A horizon and the lithic discontinuity between the A horizon and the 2C1 horizon, points to the possibility of a very recent and minor aeolian deposition. However, one should not overlook the potential impacts of human activities and/or colluvial depositions on the properties of the A, 2C1, and 2C2 horizons.

The Northern Iranian loess profiles host important information on Quaternary climate and palaeoenvironmental changes in the region. They build an important link between the Eurasian loess belt and European and Central Asian archives. Due to a climatic gradient with decreasing precipitation from the west to the east and from the south to the north, loess-palaeosol sequences formed synchronously under different climatic conditions can be studied over short distance in the Iranian Caspian Lowland. The Agh Band profile is located in the so called Iranian “Loess Plateau”, a semi-arid region with 200–350 mm annual precipitation. The loess deposits at Agh Band reach a thickness of >60 m. An about 50 m thick step-profile was prepared and the litho/pedostratigraphy was investigated. Samples for laser-diffractometry grain-size measurements were taken every 2 cm. The magnetic susceptibility was measured in 4 cm intervals and the CaCO3-content in 8 cm intervals. To establish a chronological framework a pIRIR290 luminescence dating approach was applied to the 4–11 μm polymineral fraction. The results show that the Agh Band profile yields a climate archive reaching from MIS 7 to MIS 2. Several chronological hiatuses of some 10 ka show that periods of intense loess accumulation were interrupted by phases of only minor loess sedimentation and/or erosion. The Agh Band profile is subdivided by several shifts in grain-size distribution. The coarsening- and fining up trends correlate with increasing and decreasing wind-velocity, respectively. In the central part of the Agh Band loess sequence a weakly developed palaeosol is preserved which was developed at around 80 ka. Furthermore, the loess deposits formed from about 100 ka to 60 ka ago show banded structures. A pedocomplex including two well-developed palaeosols consisting of Bw(y) horizons and a CB-horizon as well as intercalated loess can be found in the lower part of the sequence also evidenced by the increased values of magnetic susceptibility. The corresponding luminescence age estimates indicate that the palaeosols represent a period of increased humidity and landscape stability during late MIS 7 and MIS 6. Hence, in the Agh Band loess, various changes in the palaeo-sedimentary system, triggered by changes in climate can be observed. This yields important information on the sensitive response of sedimentary systems and landscapes within semi-arid regions to shifts in moisture and possibly temperature.

The loess deposits in northern Iran are located in a key region connected to the European and central Asian loess belts. However, the lack of previous detailed sedimentological and palaeoclimatic studies of the Pleistocene loess in the region limits our understanding of the nature of ancient aeolian processes and loess history in the mid-latitudes of Euro-Asia as a whole. Here, we present the results of grain-size analyses of the Pleistocene loess from the so-called Iranian Loess Plateau (ILP) in northern Iran. Our results reveal that the grain-size distribution of the deposits is characterized by trimodal and bimodal distributions, comprising a dominant well-sorted coarse dust component (ca. 7–75 μm), a small poorly-sorted fine dust component (ca. 2–7 μm), and a minor pedogenic clay component (

In Northern Iran mean annual precipitation and vegetation vary significantly over short distance from a semi-desert to a forest biome. These ecosystems likely responded differently on past climate changes. We here aim at i) testing the applicability of biomarkers (leave-derived n-alkanes, their stable carbon isotope composition, and C and N stable isotopes of soil organic matter) in loess-derived soils to identify and differentiate past ecosystems, and ii) elucidating the variability of these biomarkers in palaeosols. We sampled modern topsoils and palaeosol horizons within an ecological gradient covering a range in mean annual precipitation from 200 to 750 mm from the Kopet Dag semi-desert to the Hyrcanian forest on the footslopes of the Alborz Mountains. C org , N, δ 13 C org , δ 15 N, and n-alkanes (and their compound-specific δ 13 C) were analyzed to characterize organic matter composition and sources. In modern soils a systematic increase in C org and N was observed with precipitation. The δ 15 N decreased from about 6 to 4‰ pointing to systematically more degraded organic matter in semi-desert soils. The leave-wax specific ratio of (nC 31 + nC 33 )/(nC 27 + nC 29 )-n-alkanes was >1 for semi-desert soils and 13 C org showed no systematic trend in this gradient. In loess and palaeosol profiles, contents of C org , N and n-alkanes dropped about a factor 10 compared to modern soils. The n-alkane ratio and δ 15 N ratios remained on comparable levels as did the compound-specific δ 13 C in n-alkanes. However, bulk δ 13 C org was altered from about −27 in modern soil to −23‰ in loess-palaeosols. Systematically higher C org and N values were observed in palaeo-topsoils compared to loess and subsoil. Stable C isotopes varied rather unsystematically within loess-palaeosol sequences, while δ 15 N revealed trends within palaeosols, however, in contrasting directions with palaesol depth. The (temporal) average n-alkane ratio for all palaeosol horizons of one site systematically followed the modern precipitation gradient indicating that in all periods of soil formation a climatic gradient developed.

Loess-palaeosol sequences are highly resolved archives for palaeoenvironmental reconstruction and build an important link to correlate European and Central Asian loess sequences. For the loess palaeosol sequence at Toshan, Northern Iran, a luminescence-based chronological framework was established. The timing of dust accumulation and soil formation was investigated and thereby information on changes in palaeoenvironmental conditions in the region obtained. For luminescence dating, the 4e11 mm grain size fraction was used and the pIRIR290 approach was applied to polyminerals. Tests concerning bleachability, dose recovery and anomalous fading were conducted. The results show that residual doses have only minor influence on the determination of the equivalent dose. The Eemian (MIS 5e) soil seems to be preserved but a chronological classification based on luminescence ages for this soil remains difficult. The pIRIR290 age estimates from the lower part of the profile range from 104 ± 9t o 127± 8 ka. Lumi- nescence ages from the central profile-part point to an increase in dust accumulation starting around the MIS 4/MIS 3 transition. Furthermore, a chronological framework for interstadial soils was developed indicating e.g. soil formation at around 40 ka during MIS 3 and 26 ka during MIS 2. The top part of the profile was dated to about 22 ka. The age estimates show that the Toshan loess profile is a highly resolved loess record providing a valuable climate archive for the last glacialeinterglacial cycle reflecting several climatic shifts represented by dust accumulation or enhanced degrees of soil formation (stadials and interstadials).

The loess deposits in Iran are a valuable archive of regional paleoclimatic and paleoenvironmental information. Extensive sedimentological and chronological studies have been carried out on the middle to upper Pleistocene loess successions during the past decades, but there is an absence of comparable research in the older loess deposits. Recently, a 19-m-thick loess-paleosol sequence was discovered in the central Iranian Loess Plateau (ILP), which was paleomagnetically-dated to ∼2.4–1.8 Ma and thus represents by far the oldest loess known in northern Iran. Here, we present the results of a detailed micromorphological investigation of these lower Pleistocene loess-paleosol sequences (“red sequence”) from the ILP. Our main findings are as follows: 1) The Agh Band red sequence deposits are an extremely thick soil complex comprising paleosols in different stages of development; 2) the micromorphological index of soil development (MISECA) suggests that the moderately- and well-developed paleosols in the red sequence formed in an environment with mean annual precipitation ranging from around 450 to 650 mm, respectively; and 3) MISECA suggests that the red sequence formed under a semi-arid to sub-humid climate and thus under wetter and more favorable conditions than the overlying late Pleistocene loess and modern soils.

The knowledge of palaeoclimate in Iran is still limited. However, insight into the timing and the dynamics of Quaternary climate change in Iran might offer valuable information to improve the global palaeoclimate record. The loess-soil sequence of Toshan provides the first high-resolution record of late Pleistocene climate dynamics in Iran and complements the hitherto known sections at Neka, Now Deh and Agh Band to establish a pedostratigraphic record of the north-eastern Caspian Lowland. Our spectroscopic and grain-size analysis are combined to propose (i) a pedostratigraphical scheme for the sequence at Toshan, (ii) describe and estimate the degree of soil development of selected stratigraphical units, (iii) infer palaeoclimatic information, and provide (iv) a correlation with previous loess-palaeosol records of N-Iran as based on pedostratigraphic assumptions. The section at Toshan hosts a strongly developed reddish-brown argillic palaeosol (Bt) as well as eight moderately to weakly developed brownish palaeosol horizons lacking clay illuviation features (Bw/Bwk). These remnants of fossil soils are separated by finely textured loess and horizons that host characteristics of both loess and mineral subsoils (CB/CBk), giving evidence for syngenetic soil formation. The stratigraphical succession of palaeosols, loess and syngenetically altered sediments, covering the last ca. 130 ka, gives evidence for recurrent climate changes as well as fluctuations between dominance of soil formation or dust accumulation in relation to changes in moisture regime. The formation of Bt and Bw/Bwk-horizons is related to relatively humid and warm conditions likely corresponding with interglacial and interstadial climate.

The knowledge of loess accumulation in the central and western Qilian Shan was restricted to the time span since 13–11 ka until present. Loess deposits prior to this period have not yet been reported. In this study 23 loess samples from the northern piedmont of central and western Qilian Shan area have been dated using fine-grained quartz optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating technique to set up a chronological framework for the loess sedimentation in this region. Our results demonstrate that the deposition of dust was widespread since the last deglaciation (∼13 ka) until ∼3.6 ka in the northern piedmont of the central and western Qilian Shan area. Furthermore, the chronology of the loess sedimentation has been extended back at least to ∼81 ka, which is remarkably older than previously thought. The existence of suitable environmental conditions (e.g. vegetation cover) for loess accumulation can be deduced in the central and western Qilian Shan for the Holocene and late Pleistocene. However, the loess sedimentation has been revealed to be discontinuous before ∼13 ka as indicated by its episodic occurrence.

It has been shown that the infrared stimulated luminescence signals measured at elevated temperature after an IR stimulation at 50 °C (post-IR IRSL) are significantly more stable than the conventional IRSL at 50 °C (IR 50 ). In this study a post-IR IRSL protocol using a second IR stimulation temperature of 290 °C (pIRIR 290 ) was applied to 17 polymineral fine grain (4–11 μm) samples from various loess sections in the Eifel region (Wannenkopfe, Dachsbusch, Karlich and Ariendorf) with independent age control to test the reliability of ages using the pIRIR 290 signal. The laboratory-measured fading rates are below 1%/decade on average for the pIRIR 290 . Both IR 50 and pIRIR 290 signals of 9 samples were found to be in field saturation. The average ratio of the sensitivity-corrected natural signal to the laboratory saturation level for the pIRIR 290 is 0.98 ± 0.02 ( n = 9), showing that field saturation is equal to laboratory saturation for the pIRIR 290 signal from polymineral fine grains from the Eifel region. Minimum equivalent dose estimates were calculated from the characteristic saturation dose of the dose response curves, giving minimum ages estimates of ∼230–420 ka, and suggesting that the pIRIR 290 signal can be used to date loess to ∼300 ka. The pIRIR 290 ages estimates of the samples from the Wannenkopfe and Dachsbusch sites are in good agreement with independent age control showing that the IRSL dating using pIRIR 290 signal without fading correction is apparently reliable. Our data suggest that the loess units E, F, G and the lower part of H at the Karlich site were accumulated >270 ka and that the palaeosol of the Karlich Interglacial I most likely developed during marine isotope stage (MIS 9) or earlier. The pedocomplex on the top of Loess bed II at the Ariendorf section can be correlated with MIS 7.

In Hungary, many loess/palaeosol sequences have been found to be discontinuous. In order to allow for correlations with other Quaternary records, reliable chronologies are needed.We therefore apply post-IR infrared (IR) stimulated luminescence (post-IR IRSL; pIRIR290) dating to the uppermost 20 m of the loess sequence at Paks. The pIRIR290 ages are compared with blue quartz OSL ages to test for potential age overestimation due to poor signal re-setting, and the observed good agreement is taken to imply that the more difficult to bleach pIRIR290 signal was reset prior to deposition. Our pIRIR290 based chronology reveals that most of the Late Pleistocene loess was deposited during marine isotope stage (MIS) 3 and during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). This is in disagreement with formerly published ages. The discrepancy can most likely be explained by anomalous fading (resulting in an age underestimate); this conclusion is supported by our uncorrected ‘standard’ IRSL ages. We further confirm that the Basaharc Double soil complex can be correlated with MIS 7; the underlying loess and soils cannot be dated accurately because the pIRIR290 signal approaches saturation. © 2013 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

The Fulong Beach coastal area represents a unique feature in Taiwan, comprising a beach only a few kilometres long and dominated by medium and fine grained quartz-rich sand. Located in the estuary of Shuangsi River, the area is influenced by fluvial, marine and aeolian processes which led to the development of coastal parallel dune ridges and a large sand complex to the south of the river during the Holocene. The island of Taiwan is also influenced by tectonic activity, with high uplift rates and a substantial number of earthquakes each year. Furthermore, the subtropical climate and the occurrence of monsoon precipitation as well as typhoon events induce high erosion rates in the coastal zone. Seventeen samples from five sites were taken for grain size analyses and for optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating. Post-IR pulsed blue OSL signals were measured to determine the depositional ages of the samples. A chronological model of Holocene coastal evolution of Fulong Beach and the main controlling factors was established. Sediment accumulation at Fulong Beach was initiated around 5130 ± 360 a under sub-aquatic conditions, followed by beach deposition at around 3450 ± 240 a. The deposition of aeolian sediments started at around 3020 ± 180 a, and was interrupted by three depositional hiatuses during which palaeosols formed. The dune ridges yielded OSL ages between 60 ± 20 and 690 ± 70 a, which indicate stabilisation of the morphological system of Fulong Beach only a few hundred years ago. Based on the new data, the Holocene uplift rate is 1.9 mm/y for the last ∼3000 years at Fulong Beach, incorporating the effects of Holocene sea level fluctuations.

The existence of fluvial terraces in the high mountains of Taiwan has been known for a long time already, but these terraces have not yet been studied in detail. This paper studies cover sediments across a terrace section in the Central Mountain Range located at the midstream reaches of the Tachia River at an elevation of 1430 m asl. Sediments were dated by means of optically stimulated luminescence and radiocarbon dating, yielding robust ages between 54.8 ± 7.0 ka and 0.42 ± 0.09 cal. ka BP. These dates are in good agreement with ages known for the laterite terraces (LT) in the mountain foreland. Deeply weathered reddish soils, comparable to those in the mountain forelands, are absent. Hence, in stratigraphic terms, the terraces in the high mountains cannot be correlated with those in the mountain foreland. Cover sediments comprise eolian sand and silt and various colluvial layers. Eolian sediments provide paleoenvironmental evidence of a relatively dry phase in early MIS 3 that coincides with the maximum extent of the glaciations in the Hsueh Shan Mountain area. Widespread colluvial sediments indicate a high frequency of mass movements around 38.5 ka, a period of time known to correlate with dominantly wet conditions. In the last 1000 years, wildfire appears as a possible trigger of mass movements. The geochronological data indicate a local bedrock strath incision rate of 0.8 ± 0.1 mm y −1 , a value that appears to be in agreement with the local decadal scale erosion rate.

A landscape reconstruction for the late Holocene was carried out in the Land of the Seven Rivers, Kazakhstan, to investigate the environmental conditions during the prehistoric nomadic occupation of the Sakes (∼1st mill. BC). Two sampling locations were sedimentologically analysed: a) radiocarbon-dated late Holocene colluvial deposits and b) fluvial deposits of assumed late Pleistocene to early Holocene age. The geochemical and mineralogical components (ICP element analysis, carbon contents, grain size distributions, X-ray diffractometry) were investigated to identify synsedimentary weathering conditions. A modified weathering index (mCIA) was used to evaluate the weathering processes. The mCIA results were compared with the silt-clay-ratio as an additional indicator for post-depositional soil forming processes. Differences within the silt-clay-ratios and mCIA indexes revealed that during the late Holocene, increased erosion processes occurred in the catchment. A first, tentative geochronology is based on radiocarbon and luminescence ages, ranging from 14.5 ± 1.4 ka to 3.23 ± 0.07 cal ka BP for the colluvial deposits. This paleoenvironmental reconstruction is supplemented by a detailed geomorphological characterization of the present landscape (relief, landforms and landscape units) close to the Sakian graves.

This paper discusses palynological investigations and new 230Th/U ages of two Upper Middle Pleistocenesequences of the formerly glaciated Northern German Lowlands, the Reinsdorf sequence at theopen mine of Schöningen, Lower Saxony and the North Friesian site of Leck. New 230Th/U ages of lateinterglacial organic layers of the archaeological lake margin site of the Reinsdorf sequence ranging from280 to 343 ka give evidence for a correlation of those deposits with Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 9. Nearand long distance correlation by means of palynological investigations of Holsteinian and relatedinterglacial continental deposits and their correlation with the MIS is discussed. Isotopic investigationsof uranium and thorium from organic-rich mud deposits at core Leck 8 point to an open-system, and ageestimation by 230Th/U-dating remains therefore unclear. Compared to other Upper Middle Pleistocenewarm periods in North Germany, correlations of the Leck-Interglacial with the Holsteinian and theReinsdorf interglacial can be excluded. In comparison with sediment successions from the Nachtigallsection at Höxter and the section Ottostraße at Göttingen, the Leck-Interglacial is discussed asa correlative of a warm temperate phase of MIS 7. This paper discusses palynological investigations and new 230Th/U ages of two Upper Middle Pleistocenesequences of the formerly glaciated Northern German Lowlands, the Reinsdorf sequence at theopen mine of Schöningen, Lower Saxony and the North Friesian site of Leck. New 230Th/U ages of lateinterglacial organic layers of the archaeological lake margin site of the Reinsdorf sequence ranging from280 to 343 ka give evidence for a correlation of those deposits with Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 9. Nearand long distance correlation by means of palynological investigations of Holsteinian and relatedinterglacial continental deposits and their correlation with the MIS is discussed. Isotopic investigationsof uranium and thorium from organic-rich mud deposits at core Leck 8 point to an open-system, and ageestimation by 230Th/U-dating remains therefore unclear. Compared to other Upper Middle Pleistocenewarm periods in North Germany, correlations of the Leck-Interglacial with the Holsteinian and theReinsdorf interglacial can be excluded. In comparison with sediment successions from the Nachtigallsection at Höxter and the section Ottostraße at Göttingen, the Leck-Interglacial is discussed asa correlative of a warm temperate phase of MIS 7.

The loess–palaeosol sequences of the Tonchesberg section, located in the East Eifel Volcanic field (Germany) provide an excellent climate archive of the late Middle and the Upper Pleistocene in the Middle Rhine area. Loess deposits from the last Glacial (Weichselian) and the penultimate Glacial (Saalian) are up to 12 m and 15 m thick, respectively, and intercalated by palaeosols. Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL), thermally transferred optically stimulated luminescence (TT-OSL) and infrared stimulated luminescence (IRSL) measurements were carried out on 14 samples from the Tonchesberg section to determine the deposition age and to set up a more reliable chronological framework for the penultimate and last interglacial-glacial cycle. The fine-grained quartz OSL and polymineral IRSL ages are in good agreement with each other and also with the geologically estimated age, but the quartz TT-OSL ages are overestimated. The OSL and IRSL ages range from 16.8 ± 1.2 to 189 ± 16 ka indicating that the youngest loess and the weakly developed soils were deposited during marine isotope stage (MIS) 2 and 3 and that the two marker loess were most likely accumulated in the transition MIS 4/5. Loess and reworked loess postdating the Eemian soil yield ages of 110–115 ka indicating that these deposits very likely correlate to MIS 5d. Loess deposits taken below the Eemian soil are attributed to the transition MIS 6/7. A weakly developed soil above the Tonchesberg scoria yield an age of 189 ± 16 ka indicating an interstadial soil formation during MIS 7. This is in good agreement with preliminary 40Ar/39Ar ages for the Tonchesberg scoria and the intercalated tephra layers. Reliable age estimates up to ∼70 ka could be obtained using quartz OSL and up to ∼190 ka using the pulsed post-IR IR signal from feldspar. Hence the infrared stimulated luminescence (IRSL) is considered as the best approach to date the loess from the Middle Rhine area >70 ka.

Reconstructing Quaternary glacial and environmental changes in the vast, high-northern latitudes of Siberia is essential for a better understanding of global past climate variability and its potential solar forcings. Two sediment outcrops in the Dyanushka Valley in the southwestern foreland of the Verkhoyansk Mountains, northeast Siberia, were investigated using a multi-proxy approach (lithostratigraphy, geochemistry, palynology, and radiocarbon and IRSL dating). Three piedmont glaciations reached the outcrop sites. The glacial advances are dated to >140, ∼119–92 and ∼78–53 ka and thus, within dating uncertainties, correspond to obliquity minima during marine isotope stages (MIS) 6, 5d, and 4. This chronology corroborates and refines previous studies that have documented the successively more restricted glacial extents in Siberia during the course of the last glacial cycle. The observed glaciation pattern is out of phase with global ice volume estimates and probably indicates a strong aridisation trend. Additionally, the results show that the geochemical and mineralogical composition of the sediments contains information about provenance. Sediments originating from the Verkhoyansk Mountains are generally enriched in TiO2, MgO, P2O5, Fe2O3, Cr, illite, and chlorite, whereas sediments derived from the Lena River contain more expandable clay minerals, Ba, Sr. Alkane patterns as biomarker proxies turn out to be particularly valuable where poor preservation of pollen is an issue, and, generally speaking, vegetation reconstruction helps distinguishing between ‘warm versus cold mode’ sediments.

Silty cover soils are found in lower slope positions in the highest massifs of the high mountains of Taiwan. They are not formed under present-day conditions, and remain well preserved in locations not affected by fluvial morphodynamics. This study focuses on an outcrop in the Hohuan Mountain summit area. The sediment infill of a gully is described, and sediment properties are analysed. Size-frequency distributions of the sediment grains suggest that they are partly aeolian deposits. The loess-like sediments yielded OSL ages between 3.65 ± 0.62 ka and 1.72 ± 0.48 ka. Results from radiocarbon dating of organic-rich bulk sediments support the age estimates from OSL. The timing of gully infilling coincides with a cool and dry phase reported by palynological studies from Toushe Basin and Chitsai Lake. The sediment record reflects a large-scale climatic change to cooler and less humid conditions in the Hohuan Mountain area.

Little information is available on the paleoclimate evolution of northeast Iran relating to global cold and warm stages. The loess/paleosol sequences from southern Mashhad and Kalat-e Naderi areas were studied to determine the landscape evolution and to set up the first chronological framework for the Pleistocene deposits in northeast Iran. The loess deposits in these areas are less thick (up to 12 m) and have a more patchy distribution than in the Caspian Lowland of northern Iran. Infrared stimulated luminescence (IRSL) dating of loess or loess derivatives from the Robat-e Khakestari, Tappeh Salam and Deh Gheybi sections (a) and (b) from southern Mashhad, as well as Kalat-e Naderi sections (a) and (b) in Kalat-e Naderi area provides a more reliable chronological framework for climate and environmental changes taken place over for the time period including the penultimate and last interglacial/glacial cycles. The Robat-e Khakestari section, the Kalat-e Naderi sections (a) and (b), and to some extent the Tappeh Salam section include loess/paleosol sequences, which are chronologically in excellent agreement with the loess record of the Caspian Lowland in northern Iran. The Deh Gheybi sections (a) and (b) include loess-like sediments and fluvial deposits that make their interpretation difficult. Loess accumulated during MIS 2 at the Robat-e Khakestari section and at the Kalat-e Naderi sections (a) and (b) suggesting a more windy and arid Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) in northeast Iran. Paleosols, correlating most likely with MIS 5, were covered by fluvial sediments at the Kalat-e Naderi section (a). The absence of loess deposits correlating to MIS 3 and MIS 4 at the Robat-e Khakestari section is very likely to have been caused by fluvial processes and water erosion.

Feldspar infrared stimulated luminescence (IRSL) signals saturate at ∼2000 Gy, i.e. ∼500–700 ka (assuming a dose rate of 3–4 Gy/ka, typical for loess) and it is therefore theoretically possible to date Middle Pleistocene loess. However, the accuracy of age estimates is hampered by anomalous fading, which leads to significant age underestimation. Fading corrections have been proposed but these corrections are reliant on inherent assumptions and in any case are inapplicable at large doses (as the growth curve approaches saturation). Recent studies have identified a post-IR IRSL signal that shows less fading and is thus less dependent on accurate fading corrections. This study builds upon these investigations and applies a post-IR IRSL SAR dating protocol to polymineral fine-grain samples of the loess/palaeosol sequence in Stratzing, Lower Austria. After a preheat at 320 °C (60 s) and an IR bleach at 50 °C (200 s) IRSL was measured at 290 °C for 200 s; the same set of conditions were used to measure the response to a test dose. Recycling ratios, recuperation and dose recovery tests show that this protocol is suitable for the loess under investigation, although finite residual doses of up to 20 Gy are observed. For the oldest samples, the natural signal is in, or close to, saturation, indicating that fading is negligible in nature. This observation is inconsistent with the measured laboratory fading rates of 1–1.5%/decade and needs further investigation.

Late Quaternary landscape evolution was analysed with reference to a small (0.08 km 2 ) drainage basin system in southeastern Gansu Province, southwestern Chinese Loess Plateau. In this region, V-shaped valleys with broad valley floors are prominent landscape features whose basic shape already existed prior to MIS 2. During MIS 2 the valley bottoms were infilled with fluvially reworked loess, today forming accumulation terraces. Infrared optically stimulated luminescence (IRSL) dating of these loess-like deposits assigned them to the time span ranging from 22.5 to 17.7 ka BP. During the late Holocene, valley fills were partly eroded, and the receiving stream channel was deepened by at least 25 m close to the confluence of the study site's channels. These alternating erosion and accumulation phases were triggered by climatic factors or human impact. In the most recent past, the high landscape sensitivity of the Chinese Loess Plateau has led to increasing soil conservation measures that have effectively confined surface erosion. However, the lack of drainage on the artificial terraces induces piping processes.

Middle and Upper Pleistocene loess-palaeosol sequences up to 90 m thick are exposed on the Island of Susak located in the Northern Adriatic Sea in Croatia. During glacial times the sea level was up to about 120 m lower and a significant part of the Adriatic became land. The source area of the primary aeolian sediments was in the vicinity of the island and is related to the southward extended River Po plain. The loess has a mainly clayey to sandy silt or sand grain-size and is intercalated by at least three tephras, numerous palaeosols and calcareous segregations. The heavy mineral association points to metamorphic and igneous rocks from Alpine regions as source material of the loess. Geochemical and mineralogical properties of loess and palaeosols differentiate one from another and reflect the intensity of weathering and pedogenesis. The oldest tephra contains vitroclasts and serrated clinopyroxene while the middle and the youngest tephra along with vitroclasts, contain idiomorphic augite as diagnostic volcanic features. Based on bulk rock and vitroclast chemistry, morphology of pyroxenes, and the age of the loess sandwiching the tephra, the potential source of this volcanic material could very likely be the Campanian or Aeolian volcanic province in southern Italy. Infrared stimulated luminescence dating-results show that the major part of the aeolian deposits including the tephra layers correlates to MIS 3-MIS 5.

Terrestrial carbonate formations, such as travertines, speleothems and lake sediments, are important archives of terrestrial climate forcing. At the Suttő section in Hungary, a complex succession of travertine is covered by a loess-palaeosol sequence; both are high resolution terrestrial archives of climate and environment change. Uranium-series (230Th/U) dating was carried out to set up a more reliable chronological frame for the travertine. As the growth of travertine is very complex, pore cements may cause serious problems for precise dating. The state of alteration of primary spar and micrite was characterised by microscopic, cathodoluminescence and microprobe analyses. The travertine from Suttő showed homogeneous phases of primary calcite, minor micropores and rare pore cements. The carbon isotopic composition indicates that the source of carbon was a mixture of atmospheric and soil derived CO2. Calculated water temperatures based on oxygen isotope data range from 22 °C to 31 °C. An attempt to provide an independent relative dating approach by palaeomagnetic techniques failed. 230Th/U ages were determined applying an isochron approach using the leachate/leachate method. As the travertine deposits have a dense structure, the bulk sampling method was successfully applied in determining uranium-series ages with much higher precision than former studies with alpha spectrometry. Travertines from Suttő yielded Mid-Pleistocene ages ranging from the antepenultimate glacial to the penultimate interglacial (310–240 ka). These results are in agreement with those from optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating and amino acid racemisation (AAR) dating of the overlying sediment indicating at least an MIS 7 age for the travertine.

Holocene sediments from a 9 m high outcrop at the Gangyasang Qu's entry into Lake Nam Co, on the south-eastern Tibetan Plateau, were studied in a multiproxy approach. The lowermost part of the section is of early Holocene age and consists of varved sediments deposited in a proglacial lake. Geomorphological investigations of fossil beach ridges and fossil cliff lines in the littoral zone of Nam Co indicate a late Pleistocene lake level high of 29 m above the present level. A warming is visible in ostracode-rich silts deposited after 9.6 ka BP. An ostracode-based transfer function estimates a lake level 28 m higher than today from this time until about 5.2 ka BP. A late Pleistocene lake level high was accompanied by an increase in lake size, causing Nam Co to overflow into the lower course of Gangyasang Qu, where a bay with slack-water conditions formed. Between 4.2 and 1.3 ka BP the lake level was approximately 10 m higher than today. The progradation of the Gangyasang Qu delta into Nam Co and the decreasing lake level shifted the study site into a fluvio-lacustrine environment. The sandy character and relatively low numbers of ostracode valves in the topmost sediments indicate increased fluvial activity, possibly due to a temporary increase in flood frequency. This facies lasted at least until 1.3 ka BP, when the lake level of Nam Co dropped again and the river incised more than 10 m into the underlying fluvio-lacustrine and lacustrine sediments.

The loess/palaeosol sequences of the Caspian Lowland in Northern Iran provide detailed archives of climate and environmental change showing a close relationship to global cooling and warming trends for the Quaternary period. The magnitude of these changes is under discussion owing to uncertainties in the chronologies for individual sites. A chronological frame was set up for the last glacial loess record for three Upper Pleistocene key sections by infrared optically stimulated luminescence (IRSL). In the Caspian Lowland, IRSL dating gives reliable ages for sediments covering at least the past 60 ka. However, for sediments older than 60 ka, a significant age underestimation is likely. The first strongly developed buried Bt/Bwt horizons or pedocomplexes at the three sections under study correlate most likely with the last interglacial (MIS 5). At least four periods of increased sediment accumulation were determined for the last glacial period intercalated by periods of weak soil formation. The loess/palaeosol sequences in Northern Iran recorded coeval and similar major climatic changes as in South-Eastern Central Europe and Central Asia.

The loess–paleosol sequences in Hungary provide an excellent Upper Pleistocene climate archive of the Carpathian Basin. Loess deposits up to 20 m thick cover the Suttő travertine complex, located in the very northern part of Hungary, next to the right bank of the Danube River. The loess is intercalated with two weakly developed greyish horizons, two thinner-brownish steppe-like soils and a pedocomplex, including a reddish-brown clay-enriched horizon covered by a chernozem-like paleosol. Infrared optically stimulated luminescence (IRSL) dating was applied on polymineral fine grain material to determine the depositional age of the loess. The uppermost loess yields IRSL age estimates ranging from 15 to 40 ka. The loess on top of the pedocomplex yields IRSL age estimates ranging from 48 to 60 ka. The pedocomplex most likely correlates with the Marine Oxygen Isotope Stage (MIS) 5 interglacial period. The loess from below the pedocomplex was deposited during the penultimate glaciation, as evidenced by amino acid racemization (AAR) results. Further independent age control is provided by radiocarbon dating for the upper part of the profile and by uranium-series (230Th/234U) ages correlating the travertine below the loess with MIS 7–8. The magnetic susceptibility record through the sequence shows a strong correlation with the loess layers and soil horizons.

Loess sequences in the Vojvodina region (Northern Serbia) reveal a continuous record of paleoclimatic variations during the Middle and Late Pleistocene. The most detailed stratigraphic information comes from remarkable exposures on the cliffs of the right Danube bank from Vukovar to Belgrade. The Batajnica loess section has been recognized as one of the most complete Middle and Late Pleistocene records in this region. A more than 40 m thick loess–paleosol succession represents environmental transition from relative thin loess layers and rubified soils in lower part of profile to thick loess and fossil chernozems characterizing the last three glacial–interglacial cycles. The proposed stratigraphic model is based on a detailed magnetic susceptibility (MS) record which is related to the deep-sea isotope stratigraphy and on correlation with other Eurasian loess records using the distinct MS pattern of selected loess–paleosol couplets. This new stratigraphic model suggests serious revision of previous chronological interpretations. MS as function of depth shows a well-known pattern of low values in loess and high values in paleosols indicating strong enhancement of magnetic minerals during soil formation. With the exception of the recent soil (V-S0) which is strongly contaminated by archaeological artifacts, the third paleosol V-S3 reveals the highest values in MS and a very distinct double peak. The rock magnetic signal at Batajnica resembles the typical pattern of the enviromagnetic records determined from other Eurasian loess sites. The paleopedological interpretations, rubification index values and rock magnetic record at Batajnica yield valuable data for the reconstruction of paleoclimatic fluctuations for the last 5 glacial–interglacial cycles at least. Moreover, the record provides an important link between the classical Central European loess sites and the Central Asian and Chinese loess provinces.

Late Quaternary basin fill deposits exposed in the north-western part of the plain of Marvdasht were investigated in order to elucidate the nature of near-surface basin fill deposits as well as the timing of sediment aggradation, soil formation and incision of Kor River. Besides sedimentological and paleopedological analysis, a chronological frame was set up by infrared stimulated luminescence (IRSL) and radiocarbon dating. The near-surface basin fill consists of silty to clayey fluvial and aeolian deposits documenting gradual horizontal and vertical changes of low velocity fluvial and limnic sedimentation on the one hand and subaerial deposition on the other hand. The accumulation of the sediments decreased during a phase of soil formation possibly between 27 and 22 ka. This phase is represented by a strongly developed brown paleosol which developed under a climate similar to today, while contemporaneously formed grey paleosols indicate topographically wet conditions in backswamp paleo-environments. Between about 21 and 7 ka, high rates of sediment deposition occurred and the upper sediments of the plain accumulated, probably under drier and cooler climatic conditions than today. From about 16 to 10 ka, a gradually dessicating lake covered parts of the plain. At the same time, several weakly developed brown and grey paleosols were formed indicating comparatively stable paleo-environments with strongly reduced sediment accumulation and/or topographically moist paleo-environments in the alluvial plain. The formation of the strongly developed modern soils started after a change to moister climatic conditions during the early to mid Holocene, most likely between 7 and 4 ka. Increased river incision has started at about 10 ka and was likely retarded at about 4 ka owing to mid Holocene tectonic uplift in the lower parts of the basin.

Similar to the Chinese loess, the loess deposits surrounding the high mountain regions of Central Asia play an important role in understanding the climate and environmental change during the Pleistocene in Eurasia. Despite their thickness and widespread distribution, the loess deposits in southeast Kazakhstan have so far not been investigated in detail. The Remisowka loess–palaeosol sequence is located in the vicinity of the North Tien Shan Mountains at an altitude of 1070 m above sea level. In the profile under study nine loess layers were distinguished, intercalated by eight pedocomplexes and so indicating a similar cyclicity like the loess–palaeosol sequences in Central Asia and China. At the Remisowka section, 12 loess samples were taken to set up a more reliable chronological model for the section, using a luminescence dating approach. Polymineral fine grains were investigated by infrared optically stimulated luminescence applying the multiple aliquot additive dose protocol. Preliminary fading experiments were carried out for one sample taken from the uppermost loess layer. While the results of the uppermost layer are in agreement with geological age estimates and indicate a correlation to the Late Glacial, age underestimation is very likely for the samples below the first weak palaeosol. No significant age increase with depth was recognised. The reason for this age underestimation is not yet fully understood but could be related to anomalous fading. Further methodological approaches are necessary as well as a combination of different chronometric techniques for improvement of the results.

In the Basin of Persepolis, late Quaternary basin fills consist of loess, loess-like sediments and fine- or coarse-textured alluvium. The loess and its derivatives are divided by various paleosols, which consist of well-developed fBw(t)-horizons, weakly developed fBwC- and fBwgC-horizons, as well as fAh-horizons. Strongly developed fBtk-horizons occur in stony alluvial fan deposits or superimpose residual loams of carbonate bedrock mixed with loess. The different types of paleosols result from various degrees of soil development as evidenced by micromorphological features such as the birefringence fabrics, and less clearly by pedochemical properties. Based on the stratigraphy and different degrees of soil development, various phases of soil formation and sediment deposition can be distinguished. Infrared optically stimulated luminescence (IRSL), thermoluminescence (TL) and radiocarbon dating methods are consistent with the stratigraphy and yielded, except for one sample, age estimates of less than about 30 ka. The strongly developed fBw(t) and fBtk horizons reflect soil-forming periods prior to the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and probably during Marine Isotope Stage 5 (MIS 5), with climatic conditions comparable to the present-day. The upper loess deposits likely formed under considerably cooler and drier climatic conditions during the LGM. However, poor bleaching of sediments prior to final deposition, as indicated by greater TL than IRSL dates, suggest fluvial reworking of these loesses. The weakly developed fAh, fBwC, and fBwgC horizons may indicate interstadial periods of MIS 3 and short phases of climate amelioration during the early Holocene. The formation of the modern soil probably did not start before 7–9 ka.

The Eastern Mediterranean Coastal Plain of Israel is composed mainly of loam and sand and gravel of Pleistocene to Holocene age, supplemented by an Upper Pleistocene beach rock horizon, indicating an alternation of marine, coastal and continental environments. Owing to the complexity of the numerous exposures of aeolianites (“kurkar”) and soils (“hamra”) in the elongated ridges along the coastal plain, it is difficult to set up a reliable stratigraphy. A systematic luminescence dating study was carried out on loose sand, kurkar and hamra deposits in the coastal plain between Netanya and Haifa. In this study, 33 samples were investigated from key sections along the Carmel coast. The chronological results are in excellent agreement with the geological estimates. Five periods of sand accumulation and kurkar formation can be distinguished at about 140, 130, 90 and around 60 ka and between 60 and 50 ka. Hamra formation took place between 140 and 130 ka, around 80, 65 and 60 ka and between 20 and 12 ka. The beach rock is correlated with the sea level maximum during OIS 5e. The luminescence dating results indicate that neither kurkar nor hamra formation correlates with glacial and interglacial periods of the Northern Hemisphere. However, the chronological succession of these climate-related cycles is in good agreement with marine and terrestrial archives in the Eastern Mediterranean.

A very detailed Upper Pleistocene record is exposed in a loess/palaeosol sequence at the section at Albertirsa in Hungary. Luminescence dating was carried out to establish a more reliable chronological framework for the Hungarian loess record. The lowermost palaeosol of the section, probably an equivalent of the MF2 horizon at the Mende key section, is superimposed on penultimate glacial loess. An IRSL age estimate of about 65 ka BP was determined for the lower part of this palaeosol, indicating soil formation late in oxygen isotope stage (OIS) 5 or early in OIS 3. A significant hiatus most likely occurs in the lower part of the lower fossil soil. The loess between the upper and and lower palaeosol yielded a mean luminescence age of about 50 ka BP. The upper palaeosol is probably an equivalent of the MF1 horizon at the Mende type section, formed between 37 and 25 ka BP, and so this palaeosol represents the Hengelo and/or Denekamp interstadial of northwestern European stratigraphy. The loess is intercalated by a humic horizon, which yielded a mean luminescence age estimate between 21 and 19 ka at the Albertirsa section.

The Sharon Coastal Plain in Israel is composed mainly of sand dune fields and aeolianite ridges. Three major sand accumulation periods are documented in the terrestrial record along the cliffs of the Sharon Coastal Plain, between 65 to 50 ka, from 7 to 5 ka and from 5 to 0.2 ka. These seem to correlate with the periods of sapropel formation in the Mediterranean Sea and so with periods of strongly increased African monsoon activity. The accumulation of the stratigraphically oldest aeolianite (Kurkar, Unit 5) appears to correlate with sapropel S2, formed about 55 ka BP. The uppermost aeolianite (calcareous sandstone, Unit 2) seems to correlate with sapropel S1, formed at about 7.8±4.0 ka BP. Major soil formations occurred between 35 and 25 ka resulting in a Rhodoxeralf soil/Grumusolic Dark Brown soil, and between 15 and 12 ka resulting in a Rhodoxeralf (hamra) soil. At least seven weak weathering horizons (regosol-type soils) are intercalated in the aeolianite of Unit V and two regosols are present in the Holocene aeolian sand of Unit I.

The loess–palaeosol sequences of the Middle Rhine Area provide a relatively detailed and continuous terrestrial record of climate and environment change for the past 200,000 years. Loess–palaeosol sequences are generally well preserved in inter- and intra-crater depressions of late Middle Pleistocene scoria cones in the East Eifel Volcanic Field and on fluvial terraces of the lower middle terrace of the rivers Rhine and Moselle. Stratigraphic and chronological investigations of loess–palaeosol sequences from sections at Tonchesberg and Koblenz–Metternich in the Middle Rhine Area indicate that the last interglacial and glacial cycle is preserved in much more detail than previously thought. In both sections, the last interglacial soil is covered by at least ten palaeosols, postdating the Eemian (oxygen isotope (sub)stage, OIS 5e) brown forest soil.