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It is commonly assumed that performance is impaired by pressure and that different types of individual situational factors can produce equivalent pressure. Our aim was to explore the psychophysiological effects of pressure to test this assumption. Eighty-one novices completed a golf putting task under control and eight individual pressure conditions: time, difficulty, video, team, goal, fame, shame, and distraction. Performance was measured by the number of holed putts and ball-hole distance. Psychological, physiological and kinematic measures were collected. Performance was impaired by time and difficulty conditions but improved by team, goal and shame conditions compared to control. Perceived pressure and effort were higher than control in all conditions except distraction. Conscious processing was greater than control in all conditions except distraction and time constraint. Heart rate was faster with time, team, fame and shame. Heart rate variability and muscle activity were largely unaffected. Putter kinematics provided evidence of swing profiles slowing and/or becoming constrained in conditions where conscious processing increased, while the swing became faster in the time-pressure condition where conscious processing was decreased. Taken together, these results reveal heterogenous effects of pressure on performance, with performance impaired, unaffected, and improved by individual pressure situations. Similarly, heterogeneity characterized the effects of pressure on psychological, physiological and kinematic responses associated with task performance. In sum, the evidence challenges the standard tacit assumptions about the pressure-performance relationship in sport. • Many assume that performance is always and equally impaired by pressure. • Examined effects of eight individual pressure conditions on performance. • Performance impaired by 2, improved by 3, and unaffected by 3 pressure conditions. • Evidence challenges tacit assumptions about the pressure-performance relationship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Running is a popular form of physical activity yet discontinuation is common. Interventions targeting physical activity adoption have shown modest effects, often with little translation into long-term participation, which may limit the health benefits available to the wider community. This paper details the development of a new online running intervention (Just Run) aimed at improving continuation of running activity in new runners through a motivational and psychological lens, including aspects of design, content, refinement, and usability testing. A six-step intervention mapping process was used to develop a theory-based online intervention using a mix of research designs. Key stakeholders including runners, coaches and relevant experts in physical activity and behavior change provided valuable insight, feedback and refinement of the education to be delivered. The final Just Run intervention included ten modules delivered online over twelve weeks to promote ongoing running participation through videos, testimonials, and activities. Key themes identified through the literature and stakeholder engagement process related to goal setting, self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, social support and overcoming barriers to running participation. Usability testing confirmed the quality and suitability of the education to the target population. Just Run has been developed with a range of stakeholders to address an area of unmet need in the adoption and promotion of running. Just Run is a robust online intervention that has been designed and pre-tested with positive feedback and unique insights from key stakeholders. Further investigation is required to support its implementation to the wider community. • A six-step intervention mapping process informed the design of Just Run. • Key stakeholders contributed to the design of this motivational running intervention. • Goal setting and social support were key topics included in the designed material. • Positive usability testing confirmed the aptness of the education to runners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Growing numbers of researchers have investigated how training programmes influence coaches' and teachers' ability to promote life skills development, and concurrently, athlete-related outcomes. This study aimed to examine high school student-athletes' development of life skills through a three-year programme called Winner for Life (Gagnant pour la vie). Delivered online to high school coaches and teachers, the programme targeted five life skills: (a) Goal Setting and Concentration (Year 1), (b) Healthy Eating Habits and Safety Behaviours (Year 2), and Physical and Mental Recovery (Year 3). In all, 148 student-athletes participated in the programme and completed questionnaires at five time points to assess life skills development. A general linear repeated measures model was used to assess changes over time. Missing data were handled using multiple imputations. Student-athletes reported higher scores on Goal Setting subscale at time 2 (vs. time 1) and time 3 (vs. time 2) and on Social Recovery subscale at time 2 (vs. time 1). They also reported lower scores on Sleep Quality subscale at time 3 (vs. time 2) and time 5 (vs. time 4). Additionally, a significant interaction was observed between student-athletes' age (mean = 13.5 years) at study start, and improvements on certain life skills subscales over time. Overall, the fact that student-athletes did not improve on all life skills could be explained by the COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns, which limited the programme's influence from time 3. Results should be considered in light of limitations regarding gender distribution and ceiling effects on student-athletes' scores. Recommendations to improve future life skills programmes are discussed, such as involving parents in delivery and encouraging life skills teaching over time. • High school teachers and coaches participated in a life skills training programme to facilitate student-athletes' positive development. • A longitudinal investigation of student-athletes' life skills development ensued. • Student-athletes reported improved scores on the goal setting subscale. • Student-athletes reported decreased scores on the sleep quality subscale. • The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic impacted program delivery from time 3. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to develop a grounded theory of how to promote personal development in high-performance sport environments. Individual interviews were conducted with 32 members of the Canadian junior and senior national biathlon teams, including 18 athletes (9 women, 9 men, M age = 20.8 years, SD = 2.9), 5 coaches (1 woman, 4 men), 3 technical leaders (2 women, 1 man), and 6 parents (3 mothers, 3 fathers). Follow-up interviews were conducted with five key participants. Straussian grounded theory methodology was used. Analytic techniques included open coding, constant comparison, questioning, memoing, diagramming, and theoretical integration. The grounded theory is based on the core category that personal development is a continual and individualized process. Three propositions represent how to promote athletes' personal development process. Proposition 1: Athletes use realistic self-evaluation and goal setting. Proposition 2: Athletes experience different situations and reflect on their areas for personal development. Proposition 3: Athletes perceive and receive social support. The grounded theory portrays propositions that can be used to promote athletes' personal development in high-performance sport environments. It may inform future applied research and the delivery of sport psychology support to high-performance athletes. • We developed a grounded theory of how to promote personal development in high-performance sport environments. • The grounded theory is based on a core category and three propositions that represent how to promote athletes' personal development process. • Proposition 1: Athletes use realistic self-evaluation and goal setting to promote their personal development. • Proposition 2: Athletes experience different situations and reflect on their areas for personal development. • Proposition 3: Athletes perceive and receive social support that benefit their personal development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interpersonal coach-and parent development programmes (CDP and PDP, respectively), have the goal to foster positive youth sport experiences through high-quality relations between coaches, parents, and youth athletes. In this paper we systematically reviewed the extant literature and estimate the overall magnitude of such programmes and how they can inform future interventions. Specifically, we aimed to: (a) conduct a systematic review on the literature of interpersonal CDPs and PDPs within the youth sport context; (b) examine the effects of such interventions on youth athlete outcomes via a meta-analysis. English written peer-reviewed publications and grey literature was identified through electronic search in databases and manual searches of reference lists. By utilising a priori criteria for inclusion and exclusion, 33 studies describing interpersonal CDPs, and PDPs were identified in the systematic review. Studies that presented required data for estimation of Hedge's g effect sizes were included in the meta-analysis (k = 27). By and large, the included studies used a quasi-experimental design (58%), sampled from team sports (79%), and reported several delivery methods (e.g., workshops, audio feedback, observations, peer group discussions) and outcome measures (e.g., anxiety, autonomous motivation, self-confidence). Some interventions were based on the same delivery protocols (e.g., Coach Effectiveness Training, Mastery Approach to Coaching) or theoretical frameworks (e.g., Achievement Goal Theory, Self-Determination Theory). The meta-analysis showed statistically significant small, and medium, effect sizes on a subsample of youth athlete outcomes (e.g., task-related climate, fun and enjoyment, anxiety), indicating that coach interpersonal skills can contribute to positive youth sport experiences. Theory-based interpersonal CDPs and PDPs are recommended to expand the knowledge in this field of research. • Coach interpersonal knowledge can contribute to positive youth sport experiences. • Interpersonal PDPs quantitatively assessing youth athlete outcomes are sparse. • Significant small and medium effects were found for interpersonal CDPs on a subsample of youth athlete outcomes. • Future theory-based interpersonal CDPs and PDPs are recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Financial incentives are a promising tool to help people increase their physical activity, but they are expensive to provide. Deposit contracts are a type of financial incentive in which participants pledge their own money. However, low uptake is a crucial obstacle to the large-scale implementation of deposit contracts. Therefore, we investigated whether (1) matching the deposit 1:1 (doubling what is deposited) and (2) allowing for customizable deposit amounts increased the uptake and short term effectiveness of a deposit contract for physical activity. In this randomized controlled trial, 137 healthy students (age M = 21.6 years) downloaded a smartphone app that provided them with a tailored step goal and then randomized them to one of four experimental conditions. The deposit contract required either a €10 fixed deposit or a customizable deposit with any amount between €1 and €20 upfront. Furthermore, the deposit was either not matched or 1:1 matched (doubled) with a reward provided by the experiment. During 20 intervention days, daily feedback on goal progress and incentive earnings was provided by the app. We investigated effects on the uptake (measured as agreeing to participate and paying the deposit) and effectiveness of behavioral adoption (measured as participant days goal achieved). Overall, the uptake of deposit contracts was 83.2%, and participants (n = 113) achieved 14.9 out of 20 daily step goals. A binary logistic regression showed that uptake odds were 4.08 times higher when a deposit was matched (p =.010) compared to when it was not matched. Furthermore, uptake odds were 3.53 times higher when a deposit was customizable (p =.022) compared to when it was fixed. Two-way ANCOVA showed that matching (p =.752) and customization (p =.143) did not impact intervention effectiveness. However, we did find a marginally significant interaction effect of deposit matching X deposit customization (p =.063, ηp2 = 0.032). Customization decreased effectiveness when deposits were not matched (p =.033, ηp2 = 0.089), but had no effect when deposits were matched (p =.776, ηp2 = 0.001). We provide the first experimental evidence that both matching and customization increase the uptake of a deposit contract for physical activity. We recommend considering both matching and customization to overcome lack of uptake, with a preference for customization since matching a deposit imposes significant additional costs. However, since we found indications that customizable deposits might reduce effectiveness (when the deposits are not matched), we urge for more research on the effectiveness of customizable deposit contracts. Finally, future research should investigate which participant characteristics are predictive of deposit contract uptake and effectiveness. OSF Registries, https://osf.io/cgq48. • Deposit contracts use participants' own money as incentive, but have low uptake. • Matching and Customization of deposit amounts increased uptake of deposit contracts. • Matching and Customization had no effect on daily step goal achievement. • Overall, participants increased daily step counts by 2194 steps (66%). • We recommend matching and customization to increase uptake of deposit contracts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Goal setting can improve endurance performance, yet how endurance performers maintain goal striving and bring it to a successful close has received limited attention. In this study, we investigated the self-regulatory processes employed by long-distance runners during goal striving in excellent competitive performances. Through in-depth, event-focused interviews, we explored 21 long-distance runners' experiences of goal striving in excellent competitive performances (M = 77.43 h post-race). Furthermore, we recruited 10 additional participants with relevant experiences (runner n = 7, coach n = 2; sport psychologist n = 1) for external member-reflection interviews. Through our matrix analysis, we interpreted that by contrasting their current and future goal status periodically throughout their excellent performances, using a process called mental contrasting with implementation intentions (MCII), this helped the runners to make decisions about whether to persist with a goal, or disengage from a goal and reengage with an alternative. Furthermore, our findings depict how these goal decisions unfolded when runners perceived they were behind, equalling, or exceeding their goal(s). We also illustrate how goal revision was used as an adaptive process to maximise performance, and to avert or manage action crises. Our findings extend theoretical understandings of goal striving and the self-regulatory processes endurance performers employ to attain and/or adapt their goals. Psychological support provided for athletes should go beyond simply setting goals, but also include training on mental frameworks such as MCII to manage goal-striving challenges and decisional conflict encountered during performances. • New insights offered into the dynamics of goal striving and goal revision in running. • Contrasting current and future goal status aided goal-striving decisions. • Goal revision can be an adaptive process to aid performance. • Mental contrasting with implementation intentions could help to avert and manage action crises. • Education for runners on flexible goal-revision processes could enhance interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research has recently begun to examine the relationship between multidimensional perfectionism and athletes' post-competition mood. However, to date, there have been few attempts to examine the interaction between dimensions of perfectionism or model possible explanatory processes. To address these limitations, in the current study we tested a novel conditional process model whereby the relationship between perfectionistic strivings and post-competition affect was mediated by the degree to which goals were considered to have been met (goal-realization) and that this indirect effect was, in turn, moderated by levels of perfectionistic concerns. We tested this model in a sample of 251 athletes who took part in a "Runmageddon" event - a cross-country obstacle race. Athletes completed measures of perfectionism (perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns) before the race and measures of goal-realization and mood (tense arousal, energetic arousal, and hedonic tone) between 24 and 48 h after the race. Analyses revealed that perfectionistic strivings were indirectly linked to a more unpleasant post-competition mood (higher tense arousal and lower hedonic tone) via perceptions of lower goal-realization. In addition, these two indirect effects were statistically significant only when perfectionistic concerns were medium and high. The results support the proposed conditional model and suggest the interplay between dimensions of perfectionism is important for athletes' post-competition mood, and the level of perfectionistic concerns, especially. • Perfectionistic strivings led to unpleasant mood indirectly via lower goal-realization. • Perfectionistic concerns moderated indirect effects of perfectionistic strivings. • Indirect effects were evident when perfectionistic concerns were higher. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parents are known to be important influencers in the talent development process but are often overlooked. Understanding the parent perspective may help National Governing Bodies and coaches improve their support for young talented athletes. This study aims to understand the parent perspective of the talent development experience across a national multi-sport landscape using mixed methods. Four hundred and eighty-five parents of pathway athletes completed the talent development environment questionnaire for parents (TDEQ-P), which included the opportunity for parents to respond in an open fashion. The results revealed several key relative strengths and weaknesses of the talent development environment. Areas identified for improvement included 1) Communication related to pathway understanding, planning, guidance, and feedback, 2) Individualised training, goal setting, and feedback, 3) Facilities, 4) Access to a specialist support network, in particular psychology support, 5) Engagement between coaches and, 6) Dual career management and engagement with educational institutions. The results also revealed evidence of context specific needs between performance level, sport type, and age group. The TDEQ-P may be an efficient and effective way coaches can access important feedback, improve communication, and build relationships with parents in sport. • This novel method enables coaches to glean parent opinion effectively and efficiently. • This novel method allows parents to be engaged across a national sporting landscape. • Priorities include better communication, individualisation, and specialist support. • Needs were different between pathway contexts (performance levels, age, and sport). • Key implications include the importance of mixed methods data collection for feedback. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to examine professional football players' perceptions of organizational and media stressors over a season using Achievement Goal Theory (AGT) as the overarching motivational framework. We elaborated upon the experience of the extant motivational climate and how players perceived and coped with a number of organizational and media stressors during the season. A mixed-methods approach was used in this longitudinal investigation with the quantitative testing of hypotheses (strand 1) complemented with interviews (strand II) exploring the perceptions of players of the target variables within their role in the team (captains, starters, and marginal players). 27 players from one men's team in a Scandinavian Premier Division completed a series of questionnaires at ten occasions during the season. We used the Bayesian dynamic p -technique analysis to investigate the relationships between AGT constructs and stressors. At the end of the season, 11 players were interviewed. The qualitative data were coded and narratives were used when presenting the findings. The quantitative results showed that a perceived mastery climate created by the coach was associated with low perceived magnitude of organizational stressors. The qualitative results revealed the main categories of organizational stressors were the selected line-up for games, injuries, and losing games. The results for media stressors revealed that task orientation was associated with low perceived magnitude of media stressors the following month, while ego orientation had the opposite relationship. The qualitative findings revealed that injured and marginal players were more sensitive to media questioning in a season where the team was acknowledged for their team performance. There are benefits of being task-involved through task orientation and perception of a mastery climate to combat the quantity, frequency, and/or intensity of the perception of organizational and media stressors in professional football. • Perception of a mastery climate was related to a positive organizational atmosphere. • Ego orientation was related to negative media stressors over the season. • Being task involved is a positive attribute when confronting media stress. • Players' role on the team affected their perception of stressors. • There are long-term benefits of staying task involved at the elite level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is growing research interest in the social identity approach to leadership in sport. Researchers have examined how leaders' representation of a shared social identity allows them to motivate group members but has neglected the role that identity content plays in this process. The present research addresses this issue in two experimental studies that examine the effect of sharedness in identity content (i.e., beliefs about what it means to be a member of a group) on leaders' mobilization of group members. A 2 X 2 experimental — between-participant — design, with two shared and two non-shared conditions. In Study 1, 160 athletes imagined themselves in one of four sport team scenarios and responded to measures of mobilization (e.g., willingness to invest time on task). In Study 2 (laboratory experiment), we manipulated sharedness and assessed 114 participants' behavioural mobilization and task performance. Study 1 supports the hypothesis that identity content that is shared (rather than non-shared) between leaders and group members increases members' willingness to invest time on a task. Study 2 replicates these results and also shows that increased effort among group members mediates the relationship between shared identity content and members' improved task performance. The present research is the first to provide evidence that sport leaders' capacity to mobilize the effort of group members rests upon their ability to build shared identity content. • We examine the effect of sharedness in identity content between leaders and followers on followers' mobilization. • Shared identity content increased intentional and behavioral mobilization. • Non-shared identity content reduced intentional and behavioral mobilization. • Shared identity content improved task performance through behavioral mobilization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Objective We expanded a traditional teacher-focused autonomy-supportive intervention program (ASIP Only) to design and implement a new autonomy-supportive plus intrinsic goals intervention (ASIP + Intrinsic Goals) to determine if student outcomes would be greater than those observed in a traditional ASIP. Design Experimental, longitudinal. Method Thirty-two experienced PE teachers (6 women, 26 men; 26 middle, 6 high school) and their 2313 students were randomly assigned into one of three conditions: an ASIP Only experimental condition, an ASIP + Intrinsic Goals experimental condition, or a no-intervention control condition. For the data collection, students reported their need satisfaction, need frustration, intrinsic goal pursuits, physical self-concept, and problematic peer relationships at the beginning, middle, and end of a semester. Results As expected, students of teachers who participated in the ASIP Only intervention showed gains in all dependent measures, compared to students of teachers in the control condition. The new finding was that students of teachers who participated in the ASIP + Intrinsic Goals intervention showed further gains in all dependent measures, compared to students of teachers in the ASIP Only condition. Conclusion PE teachers in the new ASIP + Intrinsic Goals intervention generated even greater student benefits than did PE teachers in the traditional ASIP Only intervention. Highlights • We implemented an Autonomy-Supportive Intervention for PE Teachers (ASIP Only). • We also implemented an Autonomy-Supportive plus Intrinsic Goals Intervention (ASIP + Intrinsic Goals). • For students of teachers in ASIP Only, all outcomes improved (vs. control). • For students of teachers in ASIP + Intrinsic Goals, all outcomes improved even further (vs. ASIP Only). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Objectives Active fantasy sports is a type of active video game (AVG) developed using principles from self-determination theory and the trans-contextual motivation model. The game leverages elements of a popular, previously sedentary game -- traditional fantasy sports -- but incorporates and encourages physical activity (PA) of participants ("fantasy team owners"). Early proof-of-concept stage research demonstrated potential for active fantasy sports to increase PA in adults (Moller et al., 2014). However, more formative research identifying factors that influence enjoyment of active fantasy sports and PA goal achievement could improve efficacy and inform the development of alternative AVGs. Design Three active fantasy sports leagues were organized and data from the three leagues were combined to examine intervention and social factors that predicted enjoyment and PA goal achievement. Method Participants (N = 33, 15.2% female, M -Age = 34.0 years) wore an accelerometer to track PA and completed self-report measures about their experience upon league conclusion (league duration ranged from 16 to 17 weeks). Results Findings revealed that average steps significantly increased during the first six weeks of the intervention and then significantly decreased during subsequent weeks. Frequency of checking the league website was associated with greater PA goal achievement. Greater frequency of checking the accelerometer website and the league website were also associated with greater league enjoyment. Conclusions Promoting greater frequency of using the league and accelerometer websites is important to achieving greater impact on PA and league enjoyment through active fantasy sports. Future studies of active fantasy sports leagues could use randomized controlled trial and multiphase optimization strategy designs to vary game components in order to test which components sustain intrinsic motivation and increase PA. Lessons may be further applied to the development of other AVGs, especially those that build on established and popular sedentary video games. Highlights • A version of traditional fantasy sports incorporating physical activity is proposed. • Physical activity increased during the first six weeks of the intervention. • Frequency of checking the league website was associated with greater physical activity goal achievement. • Greater frequency of checking the activity monitor and league website were associated with greater league enjoyment. • Future AFS leagues will increase variety of game privileges in order to increase physical activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Objective Cognitive control exertion increases mental fatigue and impairs subsequent physical performance. Few studies have investigated intervention strategies to attenuate the effects of mental fatigue on exercise behavior. This study examined heart rate (HR) biofeedback as a moderator of the effects of mental fatigue on vigorous-intensity exercise performance. Design Within-subjects, crossover design. Methods Participants (N = 36) completed four 20-min sessions of self-paced, cycling exercise. Exercise was preceded by 10-min high or low cognitive control manipulations crossed with HR biofeedback or no feedback during exercise in a 2 (high vs. low cognitive control) X 2 (biofeedback vs. no feedback) factorial arrangement. Participants rated their intended rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and goal commitment prior to and following the cognitive control manipulations. HR and total work were recorded during each exercise session. Results Mental fatigue was significantly greater following high cognitive control exertion, which corresponded with significant reductions in intended RPE and goal commitment. Participants exercised at a lower average HR and performed less work in the high cognitive control/no feedback condition, however, with HR biofeedback following high cognitive control exertion participants attained similar HRs and total work performed to the low cognitive control conditions, which did not differ. Conclusions HR biofeedback improves self-regulation of exercise behavior in a mentally fatigued state. Without biofeedback, fatigued people may down-regulate exercise intensity. Findings have implications for the use of HR-monitoring devices to improve intensity-based exercise prescription adherence when confronted with barriers such as mental fatigue. Highlights • Exerting effortful cognitive control induces mental fatigue. • Mental fatigue causes reductions in pre-exercise cognitions and exercise performance. • Monitoring heart rate biofeedback restores exercise performance in a fatigued state. • Biofeedback offers no additional performance-based benefits when not fatigued. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Objectives The purpose of this study was to examine the role of parents in adolescent athletes' achievement goals. Our first aim was to examine if parental behaviors (autonomy support, responsiveness, behavioral control, and psychological control) are related to adolescents' achievement goals in sport. Our second aim was to find out if these relations are mediated by parent-initiated motivational climate. Design Cross-sectional correlational design. Method Soccer and field-hockey players (N = 140; 49% girls; M age = 15.50; SD = 2.05) completed questionnaires assessing parental behavior, parent-initiated motivational climate, coach-initiated motivational climate, implicit theories of ability, and achievement goals. Results Whereas parent-initiated motivational climate was a predictor of achievement goals, coach-initiated motivational climate was not. Mediation analyses showed that autonomy support and responsiveness were positively related to mastery-approach and mastery-avoidance goals through parent-initiated mastery climate. Behavioral control was not related to achievement goals through parent-initiated performance climate, but it was related to mastery-approach, mastery-avoidance and performance-avoidance goals through parent-initiated mastery climate. Psychological control was related to performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals through parent-initiated performance climate, but also to mastery-approach and mastery-avoidance goals. Conclusions Parental behavior is related to achievement goals through parent-initiated motivational climate. Thus, parents (rather than coaches) seem to have an important role in shaping adolescents' achievement goals. Highlights • Autonomy support and responsiveness relate to mastery goals via parent climate. • Psychological control relates to performance goals via parent climate. • Behavioral control relates to mastery goals instead of performance goals. • Parents seem to be more important than coaches for adolescents' achievement goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While the sport of basketball is usually characterized by a non-segmented and mostly uninterrupted play, the stoppage of the time due to time-outs (TOs) is widespread when the game is on the line. In the current investigation, we studied the effects of TOs on free-throw performance when NCAA (National Collegiate Athletic Association) games were close and time was winding down (n = 99,026 combined sample). We generally found that time extension before execution undermined performance but not in the last minute of play when performance deteriorated altogether. In line, traditional icing when TOs were called by opposing coaches specifically to undermine performance in the last minute of play failed to exact the intended goal of lowering free-throw performance. • We analyzed whether time-outs affected free-throw shooting in close NCAA game s nearing their end. • Free throw shooting subsequent to time-outs was lower in the last 5 minutes excluding the last minute regardless of who initiated the time-out. • There was no effect of time-outs on free-throw performance in the last minute of play. • 'Icing' strategies hence do not seem to work in collegiate basketball. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Motor imagery (MI) and action observation (AO) are techniques that have been shown to enhance motor skill learning. While both techniques have been used independently, recent research has demonstrated that combining action observation and motor imagery (AOMI) promotes better outcomes. However, little is known about the most effective way to combine these techniques. This study examined the effects of simultaneous (i.e., observing an action whilst imagining carrying out the action concurrently) and alternate (i.e., observing an action and then doing imagery related to that action consecutively) AOMI combinations on the learning of a dart throwing task. Participants (n = 50) were randomly allocated to one of five training groups: action observation (AO), motor imagery (MI), simultaneous action observation and motor imagery (S-AOMI), alternate action observation and motor imagery (A-AOMI) and a control group. Interventions were conducted three times per week for six weeks and pre- and post-measures of total score were collected. Results revealed that all intervention groups, with the exception of the AO and control groups, significantly improved performance following the intervention. Posthoc analyses showed that S-AOMI group improved to a significantly greater degree than the MI and AO groups, and participants in the A-AOMI group improved to a significantly greater degree than the AO group. Participants in the A-AOMI group did not improve to a significantly greater degree than the S-AOMI group. These findings suggest that combining AOMI, regardless of how it is combined, may be the beneficial method for improving the learning and performance of aiming skills. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective Achieving or failing to achieve a goal impacts our thinking, feeling, and behavior. Grounded in Carver and Scheier's (2003) model on the effect of goal failure on behavioral, affective, and cognitive responses, the present study aimed to uncover the effects of goal success and goal failure on cognitions, emotions, and subsequent performance using a golf putting task. Design and Method Participants (17 males, 24 females, M age  = 27.17, SD age  = 8.91) completed a 24 putt-golf task without the provision of final ball location feedback. Participants were randomly allocated to a goal success or goal failure condition and received a manipulated feedback of their scores to induce goal achievement or goal failure. Self-efficacy was measured every 6 putts, while emotions and executive functions were assessed after the 24th putt. Participants then completed an additional 24 golf putts without any specific goal. Results Individuals in the goal success condition reported higher self-efficacy, more positive emotions, and less negative emotions than individuals in the goal failure condition. Despite some trends in cognitive and putting performances, non-significant differences were revealed on either of the cognitive tasks or golf putting performances between the goal success and goal failure conditions. Conclusions Achieving or failing to achieve a goal directly impacts emotions and self-efficacy beliefs, but has a limited effect on subsequent executive functioning and performance on a motor task. The relationship between goal attainment and subsequent performance involves a complex interaction of personal and situational variables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Among both exercisers and athletes, affect provides feedback about progress toward goals and feelings of authentic pride can serve as a barometer of achievement. Low levels of authentic pride may signal that changes in effort or behavior are needed. Prior work has focused on stable individual differences in pride rather than fluctuations in pride as people pursue their goals. The purpose of this study was to test the hypotheses that achievement is associated with authentic pride and that fluctuations in authentic pride predict changes in training behaviors as evidenced by fluctuations in subsequent training progress. Design This study used a longitudinal design with repeated weekly online diaries and multilevel modelling to test study objectives. Method Participants training for a long-distance race ( N  = 131, 78% women; M  = 35.4 years) provided weekly self-reports on pride and training progress for seven weeks. Results Multilevel models indicated that training progress predicted authentic pride at both the within- ( b  = 0.43, p  < .001) and between-person level ( b  = 0.53, p  < .001). When participants reported lower authentic pride than usual on a given week, training progress increased the following week ( b  = −0.31, p  < .001). Conversely, greater authentic pride was associated with greater training progress on average ( b  = 0.21, p  < .001). Conclusions Consistent with control-process accounts, runners may use their feelings of pride to regulate their behavior. Low feelings of pride can be adaptive for goal striving by signaling when strategies or efforts need to be adjusted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective The present study aimed to examine the efficacy of an intervention program for fostering flow in a physical education (PE) setting. Design A cluster-randomized control trial design was employed in the study. Method A total of 135 college students (124 women and 11 men) participated in the study. Three PE classes were randomly allocated to two intervention groups (Class 1 [ n  = 47] and Class 2 [ n  = 41]) and one control group (Class 3: n  = 47). Basketball was used as the major physical activity in both intervention and control conditions, and all participants played basketball in their PE lessons once a week for 10 weeks. The intervention program focused on increasing participants' abilities and awareness relating to the preconditions of a flow state (clear goals, unambiguous feedback, and challenge-skill balance). Participant's flow experience in each PE lesson was measured with the Japanese version of the Flow State Scale-2. Growth curve modeling was conducted on the situational flow scores. Results Both intervention groups' global flow state scores in the first PE lesson (Week 1) were not different from that of the control group; however, both the intervention groups’ global flow state scores increased significantly in later weeks (Weeks 7–10), compared to the control group. Conclusions The present study was the first cluster-randomized control trial with a moderate sample size to foster flow in a PE setting. The findings of the study generally confirmed that the intervention program was successful in promoting flow in PE contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives An ‘ultra-marathon’ is a footrace over a distance >42.2 km. There is considerable interest in the psychological characteristics of ultra-marathon runners (‘ultra-runners’) and the psychological effects of running an ultra-marathon. This review aimed to summarise the existing literature concerning the psychology of ultra-runners. Design A systematic review was performed. Studies were included if they investigated ultra-runners’ personality traits, mood, cognitive processes, cognitive function, pain perception, motivations, phenomenology, psychopathology or response to sports psychology interventions. Method Four databases (PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science and PsycINFO) were searched electronically up until December 2017. Results Fifty-one studies met the inclusion criteria. A few conclusions regarding the psychology of ultra-runners may be drawn from these studies. First, the acute mood effects of ultra-running appear to include an increase in fatigue and a decrease in vigour and tension. Secondly, the most important factor motivating ultra-runners to engage in their sport appears to be the opportunity to achieve personal goals. Finally, ultra-running seems to be associated with a psychological drive to explore physical and mental limits. Conclusions Although the existing literature sheds some light on ultra-runners’ mood states, motivations and phenomenology, further high-quality studies investigating the psychology of these remarkable athletes are needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Grit is an adaptive trait that predicts achievement outcomes in various contexts. However, little is known about the factors that predict grit in achievement domains such as sport and exercise. Using the broaden-and-build theory as the guiding framework, we sought to test a model whereby feelings of pride predicted grit across two separate samples. Undergraduate athletes ( N  = 109) and recreational long-distance runners ( N  = 116) completed questionnaires at a single time-point. In study 1, state pride was positively associated with grit ( r  = 0.26, p  = .003). No gender differences were observed. In study 2, both global and fitness-related pride were assessed to determine their association with grit. Inverse associations between global pride and grit were noted for authentic ( β  = 0.33, p  < .001) and hubristic ( β  = −0.26, p  = .003) pride. Only fitness-related authentic ( β  = 0.42, p  = .003), but not hubristic ( β  = 27, p  = .053), pride was a significant predictor of grit. Findings provide initial insight into pride and grit in sport and exercise contexts. Partial support for the broaden-and-build theory was found. Specifically, experiences of pride are associated with grit, but only when success is attributed to one's own effort. Attributing success to innate ability or superiority may result in reduced persistence and interest toward goal attainment. Given these findings, it may be important to create opportunities to experience authentic pride to develop grit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective The purpose of this research was to investigate the impact of achievement goals on cheating in sport. Designs We used cross-sectional (Study 1, Study 3) and experimental (Study 2) designs. Method In Study 1 ( N = 144) we measured athletes’ dispositional goal orientation and attitudes towards cheating. In Study 2 ( N = 125) we manipulated goal involvement and measured cheating in hypothetical situations. In Study 3 ( N = 60) we examined the link between goal orientations and cheating in running races. Results In Study 1, acceptance of cheating was positively related to ego orientation and negatively related to task orientation. In Study 2, cheating in hypothetical sport situations was more likely for ego-involved and task-involved than control participants. In Study 3, athletes who illegitimately improved their race times to enhance their chances of winning scored higher in ego orientation and lower in task orientation than those who did not illegitimately improve their race times. Conclusions The findings provide evidence for the motivation-cheating relationship thereby supporting predictions of achievement goal theory in the context of sport, particularly with respect to ego goals. Our findings suggest that interventions aimed to promote fair play in sport could focus on influencing the goals of the athletes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Academics and athletics constitute two important and dominant social contexts that shape and develop student-athletes’ motivation, achievement, and conduct. The current study considered the academic and athletic contexts within which student-athletes live, achieve, and thrive to examine whether identity predicted sport conduct directly and indirectly through achievement goals. Design : A cross-sectional design was used. Method : Undergraduate varsity student-athletes ( N = 1151, 55.8% males) from nine NCAA Division I institutions completed questionnaires assessing academic and athletic identity, athletic task and ego orientation, academic mastery and performance goals, and the three dimensions of sport conduct (sportspersonship, gamesmanship, and instrumental aggression). Results : Multilevel structural equation modeling indicated the following: Athletic identity negatively predicted sportspersonship and positively predicted instrumental aggression. Task goal orientation enhanced the magnitude of the negative relationship between athletic identity and sportspersonship (played a role of suppressor). Positive indirect relationships through ego goal and mastery goal were found between athletic identity and gamesmanship. Opposing indirect relationships through task and ego, and mastery goals were found between athletic identity and instrumental aggression. Academic identity positively predicted sportspersonship and negatively predicted gamesmanship. Negative indirect relationships through mastery goal emerged between academic identity and gamesmanship, and between academic identity and instrumental aggression. Conclusions : Academic and athletic identity can predict sport conduct, and achievement goals partially explain these predictions. The findings highlight that academic context may play a salient role in regulating ethical sport conduct of student-athletes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives In adolescence, personally meaningful autobiographical memories begin to integrate into cultural narrative structures to form a life story. We examined how and to what extent adolescent Finnish athletes narrate and integrate significant life events in sport and education into their identities and future narratives in order to delineate the different styles of athletes’ career construction. Design Longitudinal qualitative study. Method Ten female and eight male, elite junior athletes, aged 15–16 at baseline, participated in individual conversational interviews. The resulting interview data were analyzed using narrative analysis. Results Thirteen of 18 adolescent athletes drew primarily on the performance narrative plot to construct their life story and five of 18 athletes could not project into the future beyond their athletic selves. We identified three styles of athletes’ career construction. Employing musical terminology as a metaphor, the contrapuntal style entwines sport and education as harmonically related life-themes; monophonic style draws on a prominent athletic life-theme; and dissonant style is underpinned by discord of sport and education. We did not detect direct associations between narrative types (performance, discovery and relational) and career construction styles. We show the dominant style development within an exemplary story. Conclusion Exploration of the future and possible selves are critical for developing meaningful (dis)continuity of a dual career pathway from adolescence to adulthood. We conclude that dual career discourse is gaining traction in directing young athletes’ future thinking; however, a broader repertoire of exemplary success stories which allow athletes to imagine achieving excellence in diverse ways would enable them to channel action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Recent qualitative evidence suggests that two optimal psychological states (flow and clutch) underlie excellent performance in sport. That research further suggests that the type of goal pursued influences which state is experienced. This study aimed to examine the effects of goal types (i.e., open, specific, and do-your-best goals) on flow and clutch states during performance in a cognitive task, which was developed and has been used in sport. Secondary aims were to investigate the effects of goal types on objective and subjective performance, confidence, and perceived challenge. Design This study employed a repeated measure design (mixed model). Method Participants ( N = 95; M age = 24.89 , SD = 9.27) were randomised to one of three goal conditions and asked to perform a Letter and Number Identification Task, which was repeated for six attempts. Results Participants prescribed open or do-your-best goals experienced significantly higher levels of flow than those prescribed specific goals, who conversely experienced significantly higher levels of clutch states. Participants assigned specific goals performed significantly better than those prescribed open or do-your-best goals. Those assigned open or do-your-best-goals reported greater perceived performance, higher confidence, and feeling more optimally challenged. Conclusions These findings provide experimental support for the role of goal types in determining flow and clutch states, and further understanding of the psychological effects of these goal types. Implications are discussed, and recommendations are made for future research into the role of goals in experiencing flow and clutch states in sport and exercise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Perfectionistic strivings (PS) and perfectionistic concerns (PC) have shown different profiles with the 2 × 2 achievement goals in sport. Whether PS and PC also show comparable profiles with the achievement goals of the expanded 3 × 2 framework, however, is unclear. Design Cross-sectional. Method We examined self-reported perfectionistic strivings, perfectionistic concerns, and the 3 × 2 achievement goals in 136 junior athletes (mean age 17.0 years). Results The results of structural equation modeling showed that PS were positively associated with task-, self-, and other-approach goals and negatively with task- and self-avoidance goals. In contrast, PC were positively associated with task-, self-, and other-avoidance goals and negatively with task- and self-approach goals. Conclusions The findings suggest that PS and PC show different profiles also with the 3 × 2 achievement goals which may help explain why the two perfectionism dimensions show differential relations with achievement-related outcomes in sport. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives We examined a model, informed by self-regulation theories from the health psychology literature, which included goal adjustment capacities, appraisals of challenge and threat, coping, and well-being. Design Prospective. Methods Two-hundred and twelve athletes from the United Kingdom ( n = 147) or Australia ( n = 65), who played team ( n = 135) or individual sports ( n = 77), and competed at international ( n = 7), national ( n = 11), county ( n = 67), club ( n = 84), or beginner ( n = 43) levels participated in this study. Participants completed measures of goal adjustment capacities and stress appraisals two days before competing. Athletes also completed coping and well-being questionnaires within 3 h of their competition ending. Results The way an athlete responded to an unattainable goal was associated with his or her well-being in the period leading up to and including the competition. Goal reengagement positively predicted well-being, whereas goal disengagement negatively predicted well-being. Further, goal reengagement was positively associated with challenge appraisals, which in turn was linked to task-oriented coping, and task-oriented coping positively associated with well-being. Conclusion When highly-valued goals become unattainable, consultants and coaches could encourage athletes to generate alternative approaches to achieve the same goal or help them develop a completely new goal in order to promote well-being among athletes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study examined profiles of exercise goal content and the associations with need satisfaction, motivation regulation and exercise behavior, combining variable-centered and person-centered analytical approaches. The participants were 1084 (279 men and 805 women) Swedish adults, aged between 18 and 78 years, that were all active members of an Internet-based exercise program. Latent profile analysis (LPA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) were used to analyze the data. In SEM analysis intrinsic goals were related to need satisfaction and autonomous motivation, whereas extrinsic goals were most strongly associated with controlled motivation. LPA revealed five unique latent classes of goal content. These five classes differed in need satisfaction, motivation regulation and exercise behavior, with classes being characterized by more intrinsic goal profiles reporting higher need satisfaction and autonomous motivation. The results are discussed from a self-determination theory perspective and the benefits of using both variable and person-centered analytical approaches are highlighted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Recent research has reported the benefits of using holistic rather than part process goals to avoid the negative effects associated with the conscious processing of task relevant information by skilled but anxious athletes. This experiment compared the efficacy of these two goal focus strategies in a neutral condition and a competitive condition in which cognitive state anxiety was elevated. Design Laboratory-based experimental design using a mixed model with between (process goal groups) and within-subjects (neutral and competitive) conditions. Method Thirty male and female undergraduate students aged between 19 and 44 years of age completed 896 practice repetitions of a race car driving simulation using discovery learning. Participants were then placed in either a holistic or part process goal group using stratified random assignment. The practice phase was followed by neutral and competitive conditions, during which driving performance and psychophysiological measures were collected. Results Analysis of variance of lap times and driving errors revealed that the holistic process goal group outperformed the part process goal group in the competition condition. Analysis of psychophysiological measures suggested that the performance of both process goal groups in the competitive condition was associated with the investment of compensatory effort. Conclusions Compared to part process goals, holistic process goals confer performance benefits for skilled athletes who perform under competitive pressure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to examine two objectives: a) a moderation effect of task orientation in the predictive relationship of ego orientation to mindful engagement, and b) the mediational role of female high school soccer players' mindful engagement in the relationship between their perceptions of a caring/task-involving climate and task orientation to their practice strategy use and ability to peak under pressure. Athletes (N = 190, Mage = 15.59) completed measures of aforementioned psychometric variables. The moderation analysis revealed that athletes' task orientation and their mindful engagement were in a positive and significant liner relationship. The final mediation model results suggest that both female high school soccer athletes' mindful engagement and practice strategy use mediate the relationship of their perceptions of a caring/task-involving climate and goal orientations to their ability to peak under pressure. Results suggest that coaches' efforts to create a caring/task-involving climate in sport may help athletes be more task oriented and mindfully engaged in their sport, and thus experience more positive outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Type 2 diabetes is a major public health problem. Effective diabetes self-management involves people engaging in multiple health behaviours, including physical activity. Walking is an effective, accessible and inexpensive form of physical activity, yet many people with Type 2 diabetes do not meet recommended levels. The present study aimed to: 1) identify demographic, motivational and volitional factors predictive of walking in people with Type 2 diabetes mellitus, and 2) test whether accounting for the perceived impact of other goal pursuits (goal facilitation and goal conflict) improved the prediction of walking. Methods A theory-based cross-sectional study using the Health Action Process Approach was conducted in adults with Type 2 diabetes across Scotland. Assuming a 50% response rate 1000 questionnaires were mailed to achieve the target sample size ( N = 500). Demographic information was collected, and intentional (outcome expectations, social support, risk perceptions), motivational (intention, self-efficacy), volitional (action planning, action control) and multiple goal (goal conflict, goal facilitation) factors were assessed as predictors of physical activity in general and walking specifically. Results The final sample comprised 411 respondents. The majority (60%) were non-adherent to physical activity recommendations. Of 411 respondents, 356 provided walking data. Body Mass Index and age were the only demographic and anthropometric factors predictive of walking (overall R 2 = 0.04). When motivational factors were added, intention and self-efficacy added to the prediction (overall R 2 = 0.07). When volitional factors were added, only action control was predictive of walking (overall R 2 = 0.08). Finally, goal facilitation explained an additional 7% variance in walking when added to the model (final overall R 2 = 0.15). Conclusion There was low adherence with physical activity recommendations in general and walking in particular. When testing predictors of motivational, volitional and competing goal constructs together, action control and goal facilitation emerged as predictors of walking. Future research should consider how walking can be embedded synergistically alongside other goal pursuits and how action control may help to ensure that they are pursued. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives This study examined how autonomy support from parents and autonomy support from coaches are associated with sport-related outcomes of adolescent-athletes. Two alternative hypotheses were proposed: (a) a synergistic socialization interaction in which high levels of autonomy support provided by parents and coaches are both needed to obtain the most positive sport-related outcomes, (b) a compensatory-protective interaction in which coaching autonomy support is more important for sport-related outcomes in athletes perceiving lower levels of parental autonomy support. Design Two studies using prospective designs. Method Study 1 was conducted with adolescent soccer players ( N = 46) and Study 2 was conducted with gymnasts ( N = 85). In both studies, athletes reported the extent to which they perceived their parents and coaches provided autonomy support. Athletes also completed scales assessing their motivation toward sport (Studies 1 and 2), situational motivation prior to and following a competition (Study 2), and need satisfaction (Study 1). Sport achievement and performance were also assessed in the form of goal attainment (Study 1), self-reported achievement following the competition (Study 2), and flow states (Study 2). Hierarchical moderated regressions were conducted in order to test our competing hypotheses. Results Analyses provided support for the compensatory-protective interaction hypothesis. Coaching autonomy support was more strongly related to sport motivation, need satisfaction, sport achievement, and flow in athletes who perceived lower level of parental autonomy support. Conclusions This research program provided support for the study of the interactive effect of perceived autonomy support from distinct socialization agents (i.e., parents and coaches) and its impact on adolescent-athletes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective Imagery ability may be cognitively regulated by motivational states, thus it is important to determine the relationship between goal orientations and imagery ability. Design/Method: Participants were 272 male and female athletes, representing nine sports. Goal orientations and cognitive and motivational imagery abilities were assessed via questionnaires. Task and ego goal orientations were examined via a two-step cluster analysis procedure, resulting in the identification of four goal orientation clusters. Separate multivariate analyses were conducted to assess differences in cognitive imagery ability and motivational imagery ability for the clusters, with gender and sport type entered as covariates. Results: For cognitive imagery ability, gender had a significant effect for athletes with low task/low ego orientation; female athletes rated their internal imagery perspective as clearer and more vivid. Regarding motivational imagery ability, when sport type was controlled for, cluster membership demonstrated a significant multivariate effect. Goal orientations have a relationship with motivational imagery ability but this same relationship was not evident with cognitive imagery ability. Athletes with high task/high ego or high task/low ego goal orientations scored significantly higher on their ability to feel emotions and their ease of generating motivational general-mastery images compared to athletes with low task/high ego or low task/low ego orientations. No differences between goal orientation clusters were found for motivational general-arousal imagery ability. Conclusion: Athletes who have a high task orientation are very motivated and have an easy time forming mastery images and a high ability to experience the emotion of these images. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We conducted two studies with the aim of examining the relations between self-presentation motives and physical activity task performance. In study 1, prior to performing an endurance-based physical activity task, 133 undergraduate participants ( M age = 20.89, SD = 5.21) reported acquisitive-agentic and protective-agentic self-presentation motives alongside task self-efficacy, self-presentational efficacy, and their personal task goals. Using a different endurance-based physical activity task in study 2, we also assessed undergraduate participants' ( n = 150; M age = 20.23, SD = 3.34) dispositional exercise-related self-presentation motivation alongside the variables measured in study 1. Bayesian path analyses revealed indirect relations between agentic self-presentation motives and task performance via participants' personal task goals. Findings also indicated that agentic self-presentation motives may act as intermediaries in indirect pathways linking efficacy beliefs and dispositional exercise-related self-presentation motivation to goal processes and task performance. The results contribute to a more nuanced understanding of the relationship between self-presentation motivation and task performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives The primary objective of this study is to identify the personal characteristics that predict dropout versus continuation among dual career athletes from different sports who attend sports schools. These schools provide an optimal environment for combining an academic education with a sports career. Methods At the end of the school year, all 10th graders (52 girls, 73 boys) from five out of six sports schools in Saxony, Germany, completed a standardised questionnaire that measured personal characteristics deemed important for a successful career – personality traits (Freiburger Persönlichkeitsinventar – FPI), goal orientation (Sport Orientation Questionnaire – SOQ), and volitional skills (Volitional Components in Sport – VKS). In addition, demographic and sport-related data were collected. One year later, at the end of 11th grade, all participants again completed the questionnaire. Results At Time 2, 37 athletes (29.6%) had dropped out of their sport career, and 88 athletes were still pursuing their sport career. A majority of the dropouts were from individual sports (n = 31) and were females (n = 23). A logistic regression analysis of physical complaints (higher for dropouts), win motivation and self-optimisation (each lower for dropouts) as significant covariates correctly classified 65% of the dropouts and 92% of the non-dropouts. Conclusions Personal characteristics, motivation and volition in particular, played important roles for those adolescent athletes who remained active in their sport. Accordingly, it is suggested that young athletes receive psychological training focused on these specific personal characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Clutch performance refers to positive performance under pressure. Definitions of clutch performance, however, differ on the performance level required to constitute this phenomenon. This definitional divergence centres on whether clutch performance requires increased, or maintained, performance. Further, it is unclear what performance benchmark (e.g., season average) clutch performances should be compared against. Accordingly, this study aimed to explore athletes' perceptions of what performance level is required for clutch performance, and what performance benchmarks clutch performances are compared against. Twenty-four athletes (M age = 27.13 years) participated in event-focused, semi-structured interviews soon after a positive performance under pressure (M = 93 h later). Data were analysed utilising reflexive thematic analysis. Three themes were generated: (1) clutch performance is assessed against goal achievement , suggesting that the achievement of self-referenced goals is the primary indicator athletes' use to assess clutch performance; (2) clutch performance exists on a performance spectrum , suggesting that the performance level required for clutch performance differs due to the appraisal of pressure and the athletes' own goals; and (3) different benchmarks are used to assess clutch performance , suggesting that athletes' may draw on both previous performances, and the performance itself, to assess clutch performance. This study suggested that clutch performance is a situational and context-dependent phenomenon. Specifically, athletes assessed clutch performance on the extent to which they perceived achievement of self-referenced goals. Defining clutch performance in this manner may resolve tensions between existing definitions, and further, may facilitate development of a measure of clutch performance. • Twenty-four athletes were interviewed within four days of performing under pressure. • Athletes use self-referenced goal achievement to assess clutch performance. • Clutch performance may be situational and context-dependent. • A refined definition of clutch performance is provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective This three-study investigation was undertaken to develop, validate, and test the Contesting Orientations Scale (COS), a new measure designed to assess individuals' tendencies to use contest-is-partnership and contest-is-war conceptual metaphors (i.e., contesting orientations) when competing (Shields & Bredemeier, 2009, 2011a). Design The research design was correlational. Following preliminary item creation and expert review, survey based studies were conducted to develop theoretically-based, psychometrically sound scales measuring contesting orientations. Method In Study 1, an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was performed on a preliminary 39-item COS administered to a sample of high school athletes (N = 233). Study 2 used EFA to evaluate a revised 23- item COS with a second sample of high school athletes (N = 92) resulting in a final reduction of the measure to twelve items. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was then conducted on this 12-item COS, which proved an excellent fit to the data. A new sample of college athletes (N = 238) allowed Study 3 to (a) further examine the factorial validity of the COS, including gender invariance testing, (b) assess the concurrent validity of the COS via its correlations with goal orientations, empathy, moral identity, and moral disengagement; and, (c) assess the COS's incremental predictive utility for investigations of sportspersonship. Results and conclusion Results from the sequence of studies demonstrate that the 12-item, two-scale COS has good psychometric properties as assessed through EFA and CFA, good concurrent validity, and adds significantly to existing measures in the prediction of sportspersonship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives The purpose of this study was to systematically review and appraise the achievement goal literature (1990–2014) with a view to identifying the intra-individual correlates of motivational climate perceptions, and to identify research gaps and avenues in need for further development. Design Systematic review. Method Four databases were searched, leading to 104 published studies being sampled (121 independent samples) that met inclusion criteria. Correlates were grouped into 17 categories and qualitative analysis focussed on identifying the associations predicted by achievement goal theory. Effect sizes were calculated using the Hunter-Schmidt method for correcting sampling error. Results A total population size of 34,156 ( χ = 316.3, σ = 268.1) was sampled in the analysis, with the published mean ages ranging from 10.0 to 38.2 years ( χ = 16.5 years, σ = 4.7). Perceptions of a task or mastery climate were consistently associated with a range of adaptive motivational outcomes including perceived competence, self-esteem, objective performance, intrinsic forms of motivational regulation, affective states, practice and competitive strategies and moral attitudes, and the experience of flow. Perceptions of an ego or performance climate were positively associated with extrinsic regulation and amotivation, negative affect, maladaptive strategy use, antisocial moral attitudes and perfectionism, but negatively associated to positive affect and feelings of autonomy and relatedness. Conclusions After reviewing the sum total of research in this topic area, the authors appraise the options for future research to make meaningful progress in developing understanding of the social determination of motivation in sport and physical activity settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present research, we sought to extend the 3 × 2 achievement goal model recently proffered in the school domain to the sport domain. We did so by conducting two studies focused on the development and initial validation of the 3 × 2 Achievement Goal Questionnaire for Sport (3 × 2 AGQ-S). Study 1 ( n = 679), devised items for the questionnaire and demonstrated that data from the questionnaire nicely fit the proposed 3 × 2 model, showed a better fit to the 3 × 2 model than to alternative models, and indicated that each goal variable had good internal consistency. Study 2 again documented the strong psychometric properties of the measure, and additionally linked the goal variables to other constructs central to the achievement goal literature. The establishment of this measure allows extensive study of the 3 × 2 achievement goal model in the sport domain, and promises to yield deeper insights into the nature of achievement motivation in such contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Research has suggested that holistic process goals might help avoid the effects associated with conscious processing of task relevant information by skilled but anxious athletes. This experiment compared the efficacy of holistic and part process goal strategies for novices using a learning paradigm. Design Laboratory-based experimental design incorporating practice, retention and transfer phases. Method Twenty-four males were randomly assigned to a part process goal, holistic process goal or control condition and performed a simulated race-driving task in practice, retention and transfer tests. Results Analyses of variance revealed that performance during practice was similar in all conditions but that the holistic process goal group outperformed the part process goal group at both retention and transfer. Conclusions Compared to part process goals, holistic process goals result in more effective motor learning and performance that appears to be more robust under pressure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to explore attitudes towards, experiences of, and perceived effectiveness of a life-skills programme for high-performance young athletes from multiple perspectives, including the athletes, coaches, parents, programme facilitators, and sport administrators. Six focus groups were conducted with 54 high-performance athletes from six sports: squash, softball, baseball, netball, triathlon, and surfing. Three focus groups were conducted with parents ( n = 8) of athletes and a further eight semi-structured interviews were conducted with coaches ( n = 4) and lead facilitators ( n = 4) of the life-skills programme. Four semi-structured interviews were also held with representatives from State Sporting Associations (SSAs) from the sports involved. Thematic content analysis revealed seven main themes: achieving balance and managing stress , time management, goal setting, confidence and control , information overload and repetition , credible role-models , coach reinforcement and follow-up . The programme was perceived to be moderately successful in developing adaptive behaviours and motives including better engagement in training and in adopting time management and planning skills in contexts outside of sport such as homework and academic study. The programme also fostered the development of skills, attitudes, and motives important for sport success such as goal setting and having confidence to succeed. To improve the effectiveness of such programmes, more emphasis should be placed on the practice of, and engagement with, applied techniques to develop skills with less emphasis on information giving and theory. Facilitators of programmes should also be more pro-active in involving parents and coaches as a way to improve continuity and provide post-program reinforcement and support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives To consider the various specific substances-taking activities in sport an examination of three psychological models of doping behaviour utilised by researchers is presented in order to evaluate their real and potential impact, and to improve the relevance and efficiency of anti-doping campaigns. Design Adopting the notion of a “research program” (Lakatos, 1978) from the philosophy of science, a range of studies into the psychology of doping behaviour are classified and critically analysed. Method Theoretical and practical parameters of three research programs are critically evaluated (i) cognitive; (ii) drive; and (iii) situated-dynamic. Results The analysis reveals the diversity of theoretical commitments of the research programs and their practical consequences. The «cognitive program» assumes that athletes are accountable for their acts that reflect the endeavour to attain sporting and non-sporting goals. Attitudes, knowledge and rational decisions are understood to be the basis of doping behaviour. The «drive program» characterises the variety of traces and consequences on psychological and somatic states coming from athlete's experience with sport. Doping behaviour here is conceived of as a solution to reduce unconscious psychological and somatic distress. The «situated-dynamic program» considers a broader context of athletes' doping activity and its evolution during a sport career. Doping is considered as emergent and self-organized behaviour, grounded on temporally critical couplings between athletes' actions and situations and the specific dynamics of their development during the sporting life course. Conclusions These hypothetical, theoretical and methodological considerations offer a more nuanced understanding of doping behaviours, making an effective contribution to anti-doping education and research by enabling researchers and policy personnel to become more critically reflective about their explicit and implicit assumptions regarding models of explanations for doping behaviour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When evaluating one's own or others' performances, there is a strong tendency to rely on social comparison information. Remarkably, however, the extant achievement goal research suggests that the prevalence of other-based goals is very low, also in sport contexts. In the present research, we argue and demonstrate that in the context of a sports match: (1) most athletes' overarching achievement goal is an other-based approach goal (i.e., the goal to win), and (2) athletes with an overarching other-based approach goal also rely on self-based criteria (referring to one's personal performance trajectory) and task-based criteria (referring to the absolute demands of the task). Survey data was collected among 647 competitive korfball players (69.4% women), ranging in age from 16 to 56 years. As expected, for most athletes (51.6%), to win matches was their overarching achievement goal, and pursuing self-based and task-based approach goals added to their competence satisfaction. In such a hierarchical achievement goal system, subordinate goals likely help athletes to increase their awareness of what actions and means facilitate their focal objective: Coming out victorious. • Athletes' achievement goals can be structured into a hierarchical goal system. • In the context of a sports match, the overarching goal is an other-approach goal. • Athletes' competence satisfaction is also a function of other achievement goals. • Making goal systems visible likely helps athletes to self-regulate effectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the end of the 20th century, the elite athlete mother has been a growing social phenomenon, with increasing numbers of female athletes returning to elite level sport postpartum. Allyson Felix and Serena Williams are two recent elite athletes who successfully transitioned into their new identity of elite athlete mother. However, there is no guarantee that all transitional journeys will be as successful. The purpose of the present study was to enhance current knowledge of the experiences during pregnancy and motherhood in elite sport by exploring how becoming a mother impacted on the perceived personal and physical identity of elite athletes. Two elite athletes who had recently given birth to their first child were interviewed at two-months, six-months, and 15–16 months post-birth. Interviews were analyzed using a reflexive thematic analysis to explore how identity may have changed over the initial 15–16 months of motherhood. Three themes were developed, comprising: athlete identity ; mother identity ; and athlete mother identity. The sub-themes of identity, physical identity, shifting of goals, juggling athlete and mother identity, dual identity, priorities, and lifestyle were generated and demonstrated both similarities and nuances in the experiences of the two athletes. This study is the first to provide longitudinal insights into the experiences of both para and non-para elite athlete mothers during the initial stages of motherhood. Findings highlight the individual nature of such an experience and illuminate some of the negotiations of the personal, athlete, and mother identity that an athlete mother may experience. • This study provides the first longitudinal experiences of Elite Athletes transitioning into motherhood. • Pregnancy and early motherhood reduces the Athlete identity in a physical and mental capacity. • These two identities both complement and conflict across the course of this transition. • Identity is renegotiated to allow for the coexistence of both the Mother and the Athlete. • Each transitional journal is unique and so too is the degree of success of this coexistence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The analysis revealed differences in the structure of goal-directed and un-directed self-talk. Spontaneous, undirected, self-talk involved mostly explaining past outcomes and foreseeing upcoming events, whereas goal-directed self-talk aimed at attaining control over cognitions and activation for action. Spontaneous self-talk could be classified based on two dimensions: valence (positive-negative) and time-perspective (retrospective, present-related, and anticipatory), whereas goal-directed self-talk could be classified into two different dimensions: activation (activated states, neutral, deactivated states) and time-orientation (past, past-present, present-future, and future oriented). Furthermore, differences were also observed with regard to the person at which statements were addressed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we examined how students' perceptions of teachers and parents' need-supportive and need-thwarting behaviors, related to their intrinsic and extrinsic goal pursuits, and in turn their motivational regulations toward physical activity in virtual physical education lessons over a semester during the Sars-COV2 pandemic. Short-term longitudinal study. Students (M age = 14.43, SD = 0.99) completed the targeted questionnaires at the beginning (T1, N = 295) and the end (T2, N = 194) of a virtual semester. The results of the autoregressive model indicated that all measures were relatively stable from T1 to T2. Neither teachers nor parents' need-supportive and need-thwarting behaviors at T1 predicted students' intrinsic goal pursuits at T2, except for teachers' need-supportive behaviors at T1 negatively marginally predicted students' extrinsic goal pursuits at T2. The results also showed that intrinsic goal pursuits at T2 positively and negatively related to autonomous motivation and amotivation at T2, respectively. Extrinsic goal at T2 positively related to controlled motivation and amotivation at T2. Findings suggested that teachers need-supportive behaviors are important for decreasing students' extrinsic goal pursuits, while parents' need-thwarting behaviors relate to students' amotivation over time during the lockdown periods. Also, students' intrinsic goal pursuits would contribute positively to autonomous motivation and negatively to amotivation over time. • Neither teachers nor parents' need-supportive and need-thwarting behaviors predicted students' intrinsic goal pursuits over time. • Teachers' need-supportive behaviors marginally negatively predicted students' extrinsic goal pursuits, but teachers' need-thwarting behaviors did not predict students' extrinsic goal pursuits. • Parents' need-supportive and need-thwarting behaviors did not predict students' extrinsic goal pursuits. • Parents' need-thwarting behaviors predicted students' amotivation over a semester during the Sars-COV2 pandemic. • Students' intrinsic goal pursuits positively related to autonomous motivation and negatively to amotivation, whereas, students' extrinsic goal pursuits positively related to controlled motivation and amotivation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study examined the personal strivings of mentally tough Australian Rules footballers. Data collection occurred in two phases. Phase one included conducting two focus groups with coaches and performance staff from an Australian Football League (AFL) club/franchise, to gain a culturally-specific mental toughness (MT) conceptualisation. This conceptualisation was used to identify mentally tough footballers (n = 7) from the club's playing group. In phase two, the selected footballers completed a personal goal strivings exercise (e.g., listing strivings, rating their commitment to them), which was subsequently coded for general and motivational themes, through nomothetic and idiographic lenses. Nomothetic analysis revealed broad trends consistent with previous MT research. Key themes included a high commitment to goals, high confidence, and achievement orientation. Focusing on four specific players, an idiographic analysis revealed different motivational agendas, including characteristically mentally tough motives, narcissistic motives, communion and growth motives, and vulnerable/anxious motives. In conclusion, despite broad themes aligning with current perspectives of MT, on an individual level, mentally tough athletes' motivational concerns may vary. These findings stress the potential importance of examining goals as a central construct in conceptualising MT. Moreover, they challenge a universal assumption that MT operates in the same way across all performers, highlighting the need for greater idiographic analysis in MT research. • This paper assessed mentally tough athletes at layer two of McAdams' model of personality (characteristic adaptations). • Findings show that mentally tough athletes are similar in how they pursue their goals but display individualised motives. • This research acknowledges the importance of examining mental toughness at both nomothetic and idiographic levels. • It also identifies the potential importance of coherence in personality for understanding mental toughness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Retirement from sport has been associated with elevated levels of depression, anxiety and/or body dissatisfaction among athletes. Psychosocial dimensions, such as having reached sport goals and planned for life after sport, may affect how retired athletes' respond psychologically. Thus, the primary aim of this study was to examine the association between psychosocial aspects of sports transition with body satisfaction, depressive symptoms and, life satisfaction among 217 female former NCAA athletes. Through hierarchical regression analyses, and after controlling for BMI and years since retirement, we determined that athletes who believed they had achieved their sport goals, developed a new life focus after their sport career, had focused on life areas other than just sport while competing, and remained involved in their sport in different ways after retirement reported being more highly satisfied with their lives and their bodies and experiencing fewer depressive symptoms; variance accounted for ranged from 24% to 28% across these outcomes. Athletes' perceptions of what has occurred in their lives while transitioning from sport may have longstanding effects on their psychological well-being in retirement. Longitudinal methodologies are needed to determine the temporal influence of these psychosocial dimensions. • Athletes' transitions from sport have lasting effects on psychological well-being; balance scale can predict outcomes. • More body/life satisfaction/lower levels of depressive symptomatology is related to new focus after retirement. • Achievement of sport goals can predict greater satisfaction with life and lower depressive symptomatology. • Athletes with flexible athlete identity report easier transitions from sport; positive overall well-being. • Continued involved in sport-related activities related to higher body satisfaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]