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We investigated the seasonal and interannual variations of the sea level in and around the Sea of Okhotsk and their causes, based on tide gauge and satellite altimeter data. The sea level all along the coastal region of the Sea of Okhotsk is found to be dominated by the seasonal variation with a maximum in winter and a minimum in summer, which cannot be explained by the annual cycle of atmospheric heat flux and pressure. This sea level variation appears to reflect ocean current variations. Both the Arrested Topographic Waves (ATWs) caused by alongshore wind stress and the Sverdrup transport by wind stress curl show corresponding seasonal variations. Seasonal amplitude of the sea level is relatively large along Sakhalin Island with a tendency of a larger amplitude toward the south. This meridional dependence is consistent with the ATWs, but not with the Sverdrup transport in the Sea of Okhotsk. Seasonal variation of the geostrophic current velocity expected from the sea level variation is comparable to that of the observed nearshore current and is consistent with the theoretical ATW transport. It is also revealed that, on an interannual timescale, the wintertime sea level fluctuates quite coherently all around the Sea of Okhotsk and further along the East Kamchatka and Oyashio coasts in the North Pacific. The altimeter data clearly show that this coherent sea level variation is trapped over the coastal and continental shelf regions with depths shallower than 1000m. The wintertime sea levels have a higher correlation with the ATW transport than with the Sverdrup transport in the Sea of Okhotsk and the upstream East Kamchatka coast. All these suggest that the interannual sea level variation along the coastal and shelf regions in winter, as well as the seasonal variation, is mainly caused by the ATWs (coastal trapped current forced by the alongshore wind stress). The wintertime Sverdrup transport, raised by the previous studies, is the secondary contributor to these variations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Sea of Okhotsk is the southernmost sea-ice zone with sizable ice. It is widely believed that the prevailing northwesterly wind and the southward East Sakhalin Current (ESC) are the two main factors that drive the southward drift of sea ice. However, the relative contributions of these factors have not been understood. In this paper, by using the current and ice-drift data measured with the moored Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler, a 3-D ocean model simulation, objective analysis data of the wind, and satellite sea-ice data, we examine to what degree and how the ice drift is determined by the wind and ocean current. From a linear regression of the observed ice drift, ocean current, and wind, the wind-forced component of the ice drift was best fitted when sea ice is assumed to move with a speed of 1.6% of the geostrophic wind with a turning angle of 17.6° to the left of the wind. Such a relationship was adopted as the wind-drift component for all sea-ice pixels detected from Special Sensor Microwave Imager data. For the ocean-forced component of the ice drift, we adopted the current at 20m depth from a numerical model simulation that reproduces well the ESC and its variability. We then evaluated the sea-ice drift over 46-54°N during 1998-2005. For the southward drift of sea ice, the contribution of the wind component is found to be larger than the oceanic component, although the ocean contribution becomes larger, typically comparable to the wind contribution, near the coast and in the northern region where the ESC is stronger. We estimated the average annual cumulative southward ice transport to be 3.0±0.9×1011m3 at 53°N. This ice transport is comparable to the annual discharge of the Amur River. The ratio of wind to oceanic components in the transport is estimated to be ~1.2-1.8. We also conducted ice-drift simulations based on the modeled current velocity and the assumed wind drift of 1.5% geostrophic wind with a turning angle of 15° to the left. The simulations reproduce well the ice drift north of 47°N but not south of 47°N, likely due to the poor representation of the current system at the latter, underevaluation of the wind factor near the ice edges, and the neglect of ice formation and melt. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Overturning in the North Pacific extending to the intermediate layer (about 200-800m depth) originates from the sinking of dense shelf water (DSW) formed by sea ice production in the Okhotsk coastal polynyas. It has been suggested that this overturning has weakened during the past 50years. The purpose of this study is to clarify the long-term variability of sea ice production in the polynyas and to discuss its linkage with DSW formation and the overturning. First, we have developed a thin ice thickness retrieval algorithm using Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (SSM/I) data for the Sea of Okhotsk, and have estimated the ice production for 21years (1988-2008) by calculating heat flux from SSM/I-derived ice thickness. From a comparison with atmospheric variables, it is suggested that interannual variability of sea ice production in the polynyas can be explained mainly by three atmospheric parameters: autumn air temperature northwest of the sea, winter air temperature north of the sea, and late winter offshoreward wind speed north of the sea. By using these parameters from atmospheric reanalysis data, the annual ice production for the 34years period from 1974 to 2008 is reconstructed from a multiple regression coefficient analysis. The reconstructed ice production shows a significant decreasing trend of ~11.4% over 34years, which is mainly explained by the warming of autumn air temperature. It is also found that the variation in the annual total ice production corresponds well with the potential temperature variation in Okhotsk Sea Intermediate Water (OSIW). This first observational evidence of a linkage between the annual total ice production and OSIW supports a hypothesis that decreasing ice production in the Okhotsk coastal polynyas, at least in part, has led to weakening of the overturning in the North Pacific. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A recently constructed hydrographic dataset from the Okhotsk Sea reveals a prominent freshening to depths of ~500m during the past four decades, with the maximum in the northwestern part of the sea. Averaged over the sea, this freshening corresponds to an input of 0.55m of freshwater. This leads to a decrease in density of the intermediate water and deepening of the isopycnals, with the maximum deepening at 26.8 σθ of ~60m averaged over the sea. The intermediate water is significantly warmed along the pathway of dense shelf water (DSW). A simple box model shows that DSW production has decreased by ~30% during the past four decades. We propose that the freshening and DSW reduction are caused by the weakening of salt/freshwater redistribution through sea ice decline as well as by the increase of excess precipitation over evaporation. Since the overturning in the North Pacific originates from the Okhotsk Sea through the DSW, these changes possibly weaken the shallow overturning of the North Pacific. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A wind-driven hybrid polynya recurs annually throughout the 10-year time period. • Pacific and Atlantic influences impact water mass formation in the region. • Upwelled Atlantic-origin warm water also delays freeze onset in some cases. • Significance of summer/autumn oceanic preconditions on winter processes. • Step increase in warming after 2016, likely originating from upstream Bering inflow. From 2009 to 2021, continuous mooring observations were conducted within the Barrow Coastal Polynya (BCP) on the northeastern Chukchi Shelf. With a 10-year mooring record (2009–2019), satellite-derived sea-ice production (SIP) data, and atmospheric reanalysis, we confirm that the BCP is a wind-driven hybrid latent and sensible heat polynya forced by northeasterly winds, and we analyze oceanic conditions and their recent changes associated with winter processes such as freeze onset, SIP, and winter-water production. The decade-long record of SIP and warm water upwelling in the BCP is dominated by interannual variability with no discernable long-term trend. In the 2015/2016 season, the SIP reached a record high for the time period studied. Water temperature and salinity prior to the freeze-up period are directly associated with SIP and winter-water production. Although wintertime SIP-related salt input is necessary, autumn salinity is, in some cases, more critical in determining winter water characteristics. The 10-year BCP mooring captures the regional changes in oceanic conditions. Summer-to-autumn ocean temperatures have been increasing as of late, especially since 2016. The prolonged presence of warmer water suggests a direct influence on freeze onset over the Chukchi Shelf and enhanced heat transport into the Arctic basin. In some cases, the upwelled Atlantic-origin warm water also delays freeze onset in the BCP. The 10-year mooring record provides evidence of recent extreme oceanic warming combined with remote and local connections from the Bering to the Chukchi Sea. This collection of data improves understanding of the impact of oceanic changes in Chukchi coastal and inner shelf waters, and regional change in the Pacific Arctic in a rapidly changing climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Circumpolar distribution of age of Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) was revealed. • Young age of AABW reflected the spread of newly formed AABW. • Anthropogenic CO 2 (C ant) content of AABW in the Southern Ocean (SO) was estimated. • C ant amount in AABW was estimated to be 15% of total C ant in the whole SO. • Atlantic Ocean sector of the SO is the largest reservoir of the C ant in AABW. Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) sequesters anthropogenic CO 2 (C ant) over the long-term and impacts the global carbon cycle. In this study, data of chlorofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride observed from 2005 to 2020 in the Southern Ocean (SO) were used to investigate the age and C ant content of AABW. In the coastal regions of the Cosmonaut, Cooperation, D'Urville, and Somov Seas and near the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge, the age of AABW was < 5 years, reflecting the spread of newly formed AABW. Higher C ant inventory in AABW was detected in the Atlantic Ocean sector of the SO such as the Weddell and Lazarev Seas (29–55 ± 19–39 mol m−2) and the Cosmonaut and Cooperation Seas (35 ± 14 mol m−2) than those in the other regions. The amount of C ant in AABW in this region (7 ± 1–2 PgC) was estimated to be 78 % of the total C ant in AABW of the SO, suggesting the Atlantic Ocean sector as a major player to C ant sequestration in the abyssal ocean. The high C ant inventory in the Cosmonaut and Cooperation Seas is attributed to the presence of new AABW. The high C ant inventory also corresponded to the thick layer and high formation rate of AABW. Similar to the Cosmonaut and Cooperation Seas, the high C ant inventory in the Weddell and Lazarev Seas reflects the thick layer and high formation rate of AABW. The total amount of C ant in AABW in the SO (9 ± 1–2 PgC that would be the upper limit) was roughly estimated to be 15 % of the total C ant in the whole water column in the SO. This study highlights that AABW formation, transport, and storage processes play important roles in the total C ant sequestration in the SO. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Distribution of the turbulent kinetic energy dissipation rate ε across the Bussol' Strait was re-evaluated by applying an improved method using density inversions to tide-resolving density observations. The improved estimates without excessive rejection of density inversions provide about three-times higher mean values of ε (1.45×10−7W/kg), vertical diffusivity Kρ (153×10−4m2/s) and depth-integrated ε (187mW/m2) in comparison with previous estimates. One-day mean vertical profiles of ε in the potential density co-ordinate allows us to estimate diapycnal velocity at 3×10−5m/s downwards through the 26.85σθ isopycnal surface, and was almost zero through 26.7σθ, suggesting the thinning of Okhotsk Sea Mode Water or of the core of North Pacific Intermediate Water as the water flows through the Bussol' Strait from the Sea of Okhotsk to the North Pacific. The re-evaluated turbulence and current distributions confirmed following previous knowledge but with quantitative improvements and/or expansion of coverage: (1) All-averaged ε and Kρ show distinctive mid-depth maxima at 800-1600m, 26.9-27.6σθ and at a height of 300-400m above the bottom, and enhanced ε within 500m of the bottom corresponding to the enhanced shear and low-Richardson number at vertical scales of less than 50m. (2) A significant amount of the ε variance (14%) is explained by the 50m-scale vertical shear composed of mean and diurnal tidal currents. (3) The diurnal tidal currents are well approximated by six low-mode topographically trapped waves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]