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Throat infections, referred to as pharyngitis, are most commonly of viral origin; however, bacterial pharyngitis does occur, in which case group A streptococci (GAS) is the most observed causative pathogen. Regardless of the aetiology, pharyngitis is typically a self-limiting condition. Viral cases are managed by providing symptomatic treatment of inflammation and pain. GAS is managed with antimicrobials, after a Centor Criteria score has been calculated and a throat swab or rapid antigen test performed, should it be indicated. The biggest concern with GAS is the associated complications, such as acute rheumatic fever, which enforces the importance of an accurate diagnosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fever is a normal response to a variety of conditions, the most common of which is infection. Fever occurs when the body's temperature is elevated, because its thermostat is being reset to a higher-than-usual temperature. Nearly every child will develop a fever at some point in time. The challenge for health care workers is to know when to be concerned. This topic review will discuss the definition of fever, its pathophysiology and basic overview, how and when to treat fever, as well as the signs and symptoms that require further assessment and evaluation. A short overview of febrile seizures has also been included. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The global number of deaths due to COVID-19 is almost at the two million mark, with over 35 000 deaths in South Africa. Although there are hopes of a safe and effective vaccination programme, the increasing number of COVID-19 cases in the country is putting a significant strain on the healthcare system. Ivermectin, an antiparasitic drug, has been widely published on social media platforms and news outlets as a so-called miracle drug for the treatment of COVID-19. Ivermectin is not registered in SA as a drug for human use, but rather as a veterinary and agricultural product. Currently, from a small number of randomised controlled trials (RCTs), there does seem to be a signal of evidence for the use of ivermectin in the management of COVID-19. Pharmacists must, however, remain cognisant of their ethical responsibilities as well as the applicable regulations that prohibit the procurement and dispensing of any unregistered medicine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fever is a normal response to a variety of conditions, the most common of which is infection. Fever occurs when the body's temperature is elevated, because its thermostat is being reset to a higher-than-usual temperature. Nearly every child will develop a fever at some point in time. The challenge for health care workers is to know when to be concerned. This topic review will discuss the definition of fever, its pathophysiology and basic overview, how and when to treat fever, as well as the signs and symptoms that require further assessment and evaluation. A short overview of febrile seizures has also been included. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article aims to provide a concise, high-level overview of the classification, management and treatment of migraine. Migraine is a common, debilitating neurological disorder that is characterised by the presence of severe headaches, which may last anything from a few hours to a few days (4-72 hours). Thus, the condition is characterised by episodes of severe migraine headache, frequently accompanied by nausea and vomiting. These headaches may be unilateral or bilateral and patients may also experience a range of associated features. Acute attacks require rapid, abortive treatment and the rate of recurrence needs to be reduced and managed through the use of effective prophylactic measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fever is a normal response to a variety of conditions, the most common of which is infection. Fever occurs when the body's temperature is elevated, because its thermostat is being reset to a higher-than-usual temperature. Nearly every child will develop a fever at some point in time. The challenge for health care workers is to know when to be concerned. This topic review will discuss the definition of fever, its pathophysiology and basic overview, how and when to treat fever, as well as the signs and symptoms that require further assessment and evaluation. A short overview of febrile seizures has also been included. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD) produces symptoms that cause great irritation to the patient. Pharmacotherapeutic management is directed at minimising these symptoms and reducing the causative factors, e.g. acid production, thereby providing relief. Currently available agents include simple antacids and acid suppression therapy, including histamine 2-receptor antagonists, proton pump inhibitors, mucosal or cytoprotective agents and pro-motility agents. Deciding on appropriate therapy will depend on the diagnosis, side-effects and cost-effectiveness of the treatment [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sport injuries and muscle pain can occur as a result of engagement in exercise and or organized sporting activities. These injuries affect all age groups and gender. The most common types of sporting activities known to cause these injuries include jogging, cycling, volleyball, swimming and heavy weight lifting. Lack of warm-ups before participating in sporting activity, overtraining and or excessive exposure to these physical activities may increase risk of causing injuries. These factors are categorized as extrinsic factors. Intrinsic factors that may lead to sport injuries or may precipitate these injuries are age, previous injuries and level of flexibility. The most common type of injuries seen are sprains and strains. These injuries are accompanied with pain, swelling and redness of injured area. Non-pharmacological and pharmacological management are available for the effective management of these injuries. Pain may vary from mild to severe depending on the severity of injury. These varying types of pain can be managed optimally using non-narcotics such as paracetamol and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory (NSAIDs) like ibuprofen. When pain is categorized as moderated to severe, narcotics may be prescribed and administered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Travel and volume of passengers and goods carried continue to expand in reach as more sophisticated air, sea and land transport networks develop. People are travelling for business and leisure, taking with them pathogens and their vectors bringing about diseases such as the global influenza pandemics. This review briefly examines some of the important vaccine preventable diseases related to travel. We then outline diseases known to Africa and other similar parts of the world, and potential approaches for preventing these conditions. The paper provides practical advice for health care practitioners when consulting with the international traveler and hence may strengthen the battle against vaccine preventable diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Allergic diseases are on the increase globally. There has been a doubling in the number of scholars suffering from allergy-related disease in the past two decades. This article describes the predisposing factors which contribute to an increased incidence of allergies within the population. These factors include a genetic predisposition, allergen exposure, abnormalities in the bowel fora and infection exposure. Some of these relate to the hygiene hypothesis and the microfora hypothesis, which are discussed in this article. Treatment options for those suffering from allergic disease are also discussed, with an emphasis on asthma, anaphylaxis, allergic rhinitis and atopic dermatitis. This article was originally published in 2015 and has since been updated with more recent literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neonates frequently receive aminoglycosides as empiric therapy for severe infections caused by suspected Gram-negative bacteria. Amikacin is classified as an aminoglycoside. Optimum dosing of aminoglycosides is required because of the inter-individual variability in the pharmacokinetics of aminoglycosides in the neonatal population. Aminoglycosides have the ability to produce nephrotoxicity and ototoxicity. This is a major limitation and concern regarding the use of this class of antibiotics. The ototoxic effects of AG treatment are dose-dependent. Preterm infants are especially susceptible to the ototoxic effects of aminoglycoside drugs, because of the anatomical and functional maturation development of the inner-ear system. Identification of AG ototoxicity is important to minimise long-term damage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pulmonary hypertension refers to a group of diseases that is characterised by high pressure in the pulmonary artery, and pulmonary vascular resistance. Persistent pulmonary hypertension in the newborn is a condition in which the pulmonary artery pressure does not decrease after birth. It may occur in as many as 6.8 in 1 000 live births. Phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) is the predominant phosphodiesterase isoform that metabolises cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) in the lung. It is upregulated in conditions that are associated with pulmonary hypertension. Thus, by selectively inhibiting PDE5, the accumulation of intracellular cGMP is promoted by sildenafil citrate. The nitric oxide-mediated vasodilatation is also enhanced. It is recommended that more large-scale randomised, controlled clinical trials should be carried out to confirm the efficacy, safety and optimal dosage of sildenafil in the treatment of pulmonary hypertension in neonates and paediatric patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]