Search

The problems confronting the chemist in control of water treatment for an industrial boiler plant are very complex and dictated to a great extent by the pattern of plant operation. An interesting field of study is presented, particularly where the plant is modern in design and very extensive in the service it provides. The author has concerned himself principally with the problems of water supply and treatment at Aylesford Mills, as these are very typical of those which occur in other large industrial undertakings. Details are given of the feed water treatment plant for the medium- and high-pressure boilers, consisting of primary sedimentation units using lime, ferrous sulphate, and alum as chemical additives, followed by a filtration stage. This section of the plant is followed by a dual system comprising three base-exchange softener units and a fully automatic demineralization plant. The interesting features of fully automatic regeneration of the demineralization plant are discussed, together with the author's experience in operating this plant. Emphasis is placed on high standards of feed water treatment and the principles of the system adopted. Sodium sulphite and tannin are added as chemical deoxidants on medium-pressure plant. Hydrazine, together with a neutralizing amine, are used on the high-pressure boiler installation. The author concludes the paper with comments on the subject of boiler corrosion.

The problem posed was the design of an engine having a taxable horsepower of 5 for a private car with rear wheel drive and weighing 700 kg when empty. It was also required that there be two main variants derived from this: an engine for a sports car and one with a larger cubic capacity for a utility vehicle. The paper describes how this problem was approached. After a re-examination of why the four-stroke carburation engine is very popular, the number and arrangement of the cylinders in relation to the cooling is considered. Apart from certain arrangements imposed by the fitting of the engine in the car, the simplest form of construction is that of the water-cooled engine with the cylinders in line. The cooling circuit is sealed. The arguments enabling the stroke and bore to be decided upon, first within the limits of a given cubic capacity and then by removing this restriction, are then expounded. The conclusion is that the bore should be as small as possible compatible with the performance called for. The following technological details of the engine, which has been designed with two possible cubic capacities—956 and 1100 cm3 by varying the bore, are then considered: design of the cylinder block with wet liners; piston, connecting rod, crankshaft assembly; arrangement of valves, camshaft, carburettor and manifold; engine sealing and filtration.

A discussion is given of the basic physical processes occurring in magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) generators. In designing a generator two parameters are of importance, namely, the power output per unit volume and the isentropic efficiency ñs which is a measure of the departure of the generation processes from the ideal. It is shown that the maximum electrical output per unit volume of gas is ñs(1-ñs)θ u2 B2 where θ is the electrical conductivity, u the flow speed down the duct, and B the magnetic field strength. The paper describes how the isentropic efficiency depends on the load characteristics, how to calculate the electrical conductivity, the effect of a strong magnetic field on the electrical conductivity and the optimum shape of an MHD duct. A brief account is given of the progress in the development of experimental generators and of the practical problems still to be solved.

The paper gives the history of the conception and design details of a mass-produced four-cylinder 803 cm3 engine, its redesign to 948 cm3 and the design of a twin-carburettor version. Finally a further redesign to increase the capacity to 1147 cm3 for both single- and twin-carburettor versions. An initial appraisal was made of the type of unit required to power a small family saloon car. Engine performance requirements were established from a performance curve of the vehicle obtained from frontal area aerodynamic coefficient, estimated weight, etc. The configuration of the unit was fully investigated, the number and disposition of the cylinders, type of cooling, position of valves and type of valve gear were all explored, bearing in mind technical requirements, cost and ease of production and production plant requirements. Having decided upon a four-cylinder in-line liquid-cooled unit, a detailed description is given of the reasons for the design configuration of the major components and the disposition of the ancillary equipment. The need to extend the range of models of this vehicle brought about the first increase in capacity to 948 cm3 and design modifications are enumerated. A twin-carburettor version was a further requirement and design and development details are discussed. With the introduction of a completely new design of motor car using this power unit, the road holding and general handling characteristics of the vehicle were so outstanding that improved engine performance became a necessity to match the above qualities. The methods of increasing performance are discussed and the reasons given for the necessity to increase capacity. In view of already established transfer machinery for all major components, the minimum of change was essential and a history of the design and development of the unit is given. It is shown that careful study of existing equipment is vitally necessary when making extensive design changes. First designs made the minimum of change and only when test work showed shortcomings were further changes made. A series of designs and tests finally achieved a sound design giving excellent results from extended tests. This process established that all the modifications were vitally necessary to achieve the performance and reliability necessary for the engine to have a further period of production and enable progressive development to be successful.

The first part of the paper describes initial test results obtained on an experimental installation of the differential compound engine. The initial tests broadly confirm the predicted torque–speed and power–speed relationships which are appropriate to traction-type prime movers, and are intended to eliminate the need for multi-ratio gearboxes or their hydrostatic or hydrokinetic equivalents. The second part of the paper contains performance predictions based on certain cycle and component modifications such as interburning before the auxiliary turbine, and variable nozzles.

This paper deals essentially with flexible wrapping materials and their performance on packaging machinery. The emphasis throughout is on the packaging media but the demands made on them by machines are given prominence. The basic principles of the main types of machine are enunciated and illustrated with simple flow diagrams. These show the passage of the wrapping material through the machine and the text isolates the different sections and the wrapping problems involved. For example, the feeding, forming and closure sections of a machine are examined and such properties as slip, tensile strength, elongation and heat-sealability of wrapping materials are considered in relation to them. The paper opens with an historical survey of packaging, packaging materials and packaging machinery. The economic trends which shaped the packaging industry are presented and general developments in packaging materials and machines are traced from the turn of the century. Some comments on the functions of packaging and its part in the industrial scene are made. The packaging media covered include paper, cellulose films, aluminium foils, plastic films and the main forms and combinations of them. The production, properties and uses of these materials are outlined but the main emphasis, as stated above, is on their machinability. Current developments in wrapping materials and machine principles are discussed and some effort is made to forecast trends in flexible packaging generally.

This paper briefly describes early unsuccessful attempts to produce an e.p. turbine oil based on an active sulphur e.p. additive, and describes experience with a successful oil based on chlorinated paraffin wax. Anti-scuffing capacity is discussed, particularly in relation to conditions of shock loading and running time. The effect of the oil on increasing plastic flow in soft gears, and thereby on pitting, is also examined. After discussing the demulsibility of oils in service, chemical effects are described in detail; namely, staining caused by the formation of β-FeO. OH deposit formation due to overheating of bulk oil and due to the overheating in thin films exposed to air. The latter relates to severe shaft damage owing to the formation of carbonaceous matter in bearing pedestal baffles, and recommendations are made towards design. The paper concludes with experiences of the wire-wool type failure of turbine thrust bearings, and present details of the oil/steel interactions found in the course of extensive full-scale rig work on the problem.

An account is given of the planning, construction and occupation of the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Brighton College of Technology. This College took over all the advanced studies of the Brighton Technical College and the paper describes the transfer of the old department and its establishment in a new building. The organization of planning consultation between architects and College is explained and the position of the Department in relation to the whole College is shown. Schedules of accommodation indicate the floor areas available and the expected student capacity. Description is given of the detailed design of individual laboratories involving work by all members of the teaching staff grouped in three sections dealing with Thermodynamics, Mechanics and Materials and Production Engineering respectively. The preparation and finance of the schedule of equipment and the purchasing, supply and installation arrangements are explained. Economy made necessary the transfer of some existing equipment and the organization of removal and reinstallation is described. A short description of the main features of construction of the building is given followed by details of services and furnishings. The final layout of the laboratories is discussed and criticized in the light of eighteen months' use. The paper concludes with general comments which may prove of value to others undertaking similar tasks.

The paper reviews the present state of knowledge and design techniques and attempts to provide a physical appreciation of the characteristics of bearing performance. The work which has been carried out recently in the United Kingdom, the United States, The Netherlands and Germany is examined and the paper attempts to relate this to experimental results and the practical engine. The possible relationships of components within the engine which affect the conditions of operation and parameters which could lead to improvement of these conditions are suggested and examined, and the possibilities of future work in exploring this area are indicated.

This paper presents an outline of the power and energy requirements of a human elbow and gives a discussion on the means by which these requirements can be met. Reasons are given for the choice of a system using batteries for energy storage and direct electric drive by a motor and gearbox. The gearbox is of an unusual type, using ‘harmonic drive’ elements, which permit the motor to be installed transversally at the elbow. The gear reduction unit is described in detail. The paper also discusses the problems inherent in controlling a motor with large stall current in such a way that most efficient use is made of the energy stored in the battery, and two control circuits are described which meet the requirements.

The main content of the paper is concerned with the way people compensate their driving behaviour for degraded vehicle stability. It also outlines briefly the background of man–machine simulation and the use of driving simulators in the U.S.A. The problem was investigated by means of a fixed base driving simulator at the Davidson Laboratory as part of a larger programme concerned with driver behaviour. The simulator has a two-degree-of-freedom analogue simulation of the vehicle dynamics. The display system is photographic using a real road film, and the vehicle is subjected to random appearing disturbances of the wind gust type. The disturbance, vehicle, and driver behaviour are recorded both as analogue and digital signals for experimental control and later data analysis. The paper describes and gives the derived results from an experiment with nine subjects, driving two vehicles, one understeer and one oversteer, simulated to be travelling at 60 mile/h. While driving, the vehicles were subjected to a random appearing gust spectra having a maximum amplitude equivalent to 10 mile/h. Methods of assessing overall driving performance and what the drivers did in the two vehicles are developed and the results, in terms of a driving error and a control response function, are presented. The driving error results show that, in general, drivers had significantly higher error scores with the over-steering vehicle. The driver control response function gives a measure of the reaction to the various disturbing frequencies of the disturbance. The results show that seven out of nine drivers had a control response function that was higher with the oversteering car. The remaining two subjects had the highest error scores with the understeering vehicle. A driving effort function is derived and it is shown that, with exceptions which are discussed, the driving error may be regarded as a function of driving effort. The results substantiate the hypothesis that the driver will try to compensate for degraded vehicle stability, but show that the compensation is only partial and increased errors result. The implications for real driving situations are that degraded vehicle stability, either of a basic vehicle or occurring during manoeuvring, will be only partially compensated for by the driver, and increased driving errors from the driver–vehicle system are likely to result. The techniques used for the simulator experiment are suitable with only minor modifications for real driving situations.

The purpose of this paper is to review, necessarily rather superficially, the broad question of emissions from diesel engines and their relation to combustion as seen from an engineer's point of view. From the previous paper it will be realized that smoke is the emission currently under strongest scrutiny. Nevertheless, as gasoline engine emissions are brought under more rigorous control there also will be pressure to control unburnts, oxides of nitrogen, and other emissions from diesel engines.

The paper deals with the story of the engines intended for the smaller Fiat cars, starting with the ‘500’ model produced in 1936: all engines with displacements in the neighbourhood of 500 cm3. With small cars, especially of the utility class, the adaptability of the piston engine to a variety of design and space requirements is used to best advantage. The size, weight and displacement must blend with the design of the car as a whole; in turn, the design must feature the highest degree of simplicity compatible with the qualities required. It is, therefore, important for the engine of utility cars to be designed as a function of the general architecture of the vehicle. At Fiat, after a period in which economical cars of conventional design were produced, work was started along this line with the ‘500’ (Topolino) model in 1933–1934. The paper illustrates the design of this model and describes the reasons behind some of its engineering details, as well as the subsequent developments which led to the final solution. Also outlined are the more important designs of experimental engines studied as substitutes for the ‘500’ model: a transversal four-cylinder engine, with overhead camshaft, built in 1945, for a front-wheel drive prototype; an air-cooled, two-cylinder in-line engine, mounted transversally, for a rear-wheel drive prototype; an opposed two-cylinder engine, with longitudinal axis, in replacement of the previous unit; a two-cylinder in-line engine with longitudinal axis, finally chosen for the ‘New 500’ model introduced in May 1957. Also described are the further developments of the latter engine for the version with horizontally arranged cylinders suitable for underfloor application. The paper highlights the more interesting aspects regarding both the design and the experiments made and explains the principal reasons leading to the choice of given solutions and to the modifications which followed.

The paper states why air conditioning is necessary particularly in office blocks in cities, where noise, dust and heat from office machinery together with solar heat gain through large glass areas are experienced. The relatively small addition to building costs in incorporating air conditioning is shown. The distinction between air handling, ventilation and air conditioning is defined and the constituent parts of a complete air-conditioning unit are enumerated. The requirements in terms of fresh air needs, temperature and relative humidity for the normal applications of air-conditioning units are tabulated. A comparison of the main categories of air-conditioning equipment is made, dealing with high and low velocity as well as special laboratory type units. A typical performance specification is also given together with data sheets for collecting the necessary design data and cost comparisons. The paper concludes with a discussion on system design incorporating factory-made equipment and literature references.

This paper investigates the common factors which may account for the preference for plain bearings in parts of the driveline. Theoretical and practical performances are compared and discrepancies are detailed and rationalized where possible. The paper continues to show the need for more experimental data from which computed results might be modified to allow for aspects of the environment for which no precise mathematical model yet exists.

This paper reviews gas turbine cycles most favoured for vehicular use. It suggests the single-shaft turbine engine as a possible contender for a lower cost approach, where fuel economy requirements are not met by complexity of cycle but by operation at higher turbine inlet temperatures. The question, ‘Where does the engine end and the transmission begin?’ is discussed, and an example of an infinitely variable transmission is explored as a means for overcoming the performance deficiencies of the single-shaft machine. The paper examines the advantages and disadvantages of this type of turbine engine with respect to acceleration and torque characteristics, fuel consumption, engine braking, initial cost, and design for simplicity and high temperature.

The paper is set in a background of boiler commissioning for customers in power generating, industrial, marine, petro-chemical and oil-refining companies in Britain and overseas. Some of the problems encountered during the commissioning of a diversity of units employing solid fuel, oil fuels, naphtha, gas fuel firing, either singly or in combination, are discussed, and actual case histories detailed. The paper embraces difficulties experienced with the ignition of fuels, the control of flame shape, air distribution to burners, layout of fuel supply lines, safety circuits, and the necessity for close collaboration between the customer and the designer during the tender and contract stages, in order to avoid loss of availability, resulting from delays in commissioning or subsequent damage to equipment.

This paper describes experience with glandless pumps on the S.G.H.W.R., both wet and dry stator types being included. The performance of the pumps is discussed and details given of the problems which arose in operations. Experience suggests that deposition in the pumps of radioactive corrosion products will not be a significant problem. The paper is in four parts: the functions, characteristics, and instrumentation of the pumps are outlined, followed by a description of some of the key results from commissioning tests.

This paper describes two different computer programs for the calculation of rolling bearing applications in an automotive driveline. The first program gives the effect of bearing preload or internal clearance on bearing deflections and nominal lives in bearing applications with taper roller bearings. As an example, the paper deals with a front hub bearing arrangement with two taper roller bearings used in a front wheel driven car, and also with a pinion of a final drive unit and a gearbox mainshaft incorporating two taper and one cylindrical roller bearing. The second program is used to determine the influence of misalignment and shaft deflection on the load and life of a deep groove ball bearing. To illustrate this effect the layshaft of an automotive gearbox is studied.

This paper describes the various types of centrifugal compressor used in process plants, and continues to discuss the more important components of these compressors and particular design features which are required to overcome some difficult operational problems. Items of particular interest include a discussion on the latest form of compressor rotor construction, the techniques required for balancing a rotor at full speed, and a detailed analysis of shaft gas seals and problems that can arise with gas seals under certain operating conditions. The paper also describes such special subjects related to process plant compressors as compressor selection and design by utilization of computers, methods of reducing time to produce compressor orders by discrete stockholdings; types of driver and shaft couplings used for these machines, and test facilities employed for centrifugal compressors which can be utilized to reduce commissioning periods at site.

This paper describes in detail the flexible pin mechanism of load-sharing not only between adjacent planet wheels but also across the full tooth face of both sun and annulus mesh points. The history of a number of examples of gears in service is also described, and the paper concludes by showing the range of applications for this type of gearing, including the ultimate refinement of providing a drive with an infinitely variable ratio.

This paper reviews the types of tractor in use in West Germany and discusses the sales of new tractors over the last few years. It is shown that the interest in all-wheel drive tractors is steadily increasing owing to their higher power rating and improved tractive ability. The paper also comments on tractor equipment and design in relation to the proposed E.E.C. regulations for safety and performance, and concludes by summarizing some of the problems of tractor development.

This paper deals with power take-off systems, but not with design details of the units being driven, or of the take-off mechanisms. Shaft stresses, gear teeth, and bearing selection are covered in existing literature, and handbooks issued by various authorities give the established standards for coupling and aperture dimensions. The paper gives information about the least well-known systems, and some of the major problems are highlighted.

This paper reviews the installation of automatic transmissions into vehicles, and the matching calibration of the transmission and converters to various types of engines and vehicles. Bench and field acceptance testing, with some reference to transmission manufacturers' approval of fluid and materials, are also discussed, and unorthodox automatic transmissions such as transaxle in-line and transverse, are reviewed. The paper finally examines volume production techniques of today's automatic transmissions and presents some remarks on future trends and requirements.

The rate of development of the subject has been so rapid that it has become difficult for any individual to be conversant with all its implications. Nevertheless, if the benefits of current research are to be realized in practice, some means must be found for presenting the essential data in an assimilable form. The history of the subject is briefly commented on and doubt is expressed regarding the adequacy of the rate of application of new knowledge to industrial problems. Full appreciation of even the simplest bearing situation requires knowledge of hydrodynamics, thermodynamics, material science and metrology and the multi-disciplinary aspects of tribology are emphasized. The introduction of tribology into engineering courses should not therefore impose too great a burden on the student because it depends on fundamentals already understood. The main emphasis of the paper, as indeed of the Conference, is on the application of research results to design. An attempt is made to classify the duty to be performed by a bearing and then to show that the form taken by the solution flows logically therefrom. Protection from hostile environments is emphasized as being probably the most important requirement for satisfactory performance. The paper concludes with the prediction that the general advance in technology will continue to make demands for an advance in knowledge in the field of tribology.

This paper discusses the design and manufacturing philosophy of a bus to be produced by British Leyland and the manner in which it is intended to meet the future requirements of urban transport. Changes that have been taking place in the bus industry over recent years have seriously affected both the manufacturer and the operator of public service vehicles. In the former case, bus manufacture has virtually ceased to be a profitable business, and it was obvious that a completely new approach to design and manufacture was going to be necessary if manufacturing companies were to remain in this business. In the case of the operator, there has been a steady decline in the number of passengers carried, increasing difficulties have arisen due to labour shortages in both the operation and maintenance of vehicles, and as a result it has been difficult to maintain adequate services and to remain viable financially. From the manufacturer's point of view, the need to produce a standard bus has become imperative, and all the variations introduced in the past to satisfy individual transport undertakings can no longer be justified. The large labour content in manufacture has to be reduced to make the cost of the product acceptable, and the division of responsibility between chassis and body manufacturers has to be eliminated. From the passenger point of view, bus transport has to be more attractive and must offer the same environment as that of a high-class motor car. Similarly the driver, who is frequently also a car driver, must have a working environment at least as good as that to which he has become accustomed in his private motor car. The operator has to have improved reliability and freedom from excessive maintenance so that a reduction in the demand for skilled labour can be achieved. He must also have a vehicle which can be operated satisfactorily and safely by one man. The paper discusses the requirements of passengers, drivers, operators, and manufacturers, and describes the way in which a new vehicle has been evolved in order to achieve these. It is expected that this vehicle will meet the needs, for single-deck buses for the next generation, of the majority of urban transport undertakings in the U.K. and in other countries with similar urban transportation problems, and thus make a major contribution to more rapid transit.

This paper points to the importance of metal manipulation as distinct from metal cutting and describes current developments in the field of cold gear rolling. It lists some of the advantages of rolling gears over presently available conventional manufacturing methods. The paper deals specifically with the following three subjects: pure cold gear rolling applied as an initial development to finish rolling and full-depth rolling applied as a subsequent development; hot rolling of spur type gears; and hot and cold gear rolling of crown wheels.

This paper describes design and operational experience on rotary screw compressors with oil-free compression chambers. Production of this type of compressor began on a large scale in the early 1950s. Experience is therefore based upon more than 15 years' operation, and takes into account several makes of compressor. The main operating and design limitations experienced during that period are summarized, and the paper relates how each item has been studied and the solutions that have been found to improve the design of this type of compressor.

This paper deals with the application and selection of diesel engines for marine propulsion and auxiliary purposes with particular reference to the special requirements for naval applications. Details are given of the various means that have been developed for dealing with airborne and structure-borne noise, for reducing the effects of external shock, and for checking the quality of lubricating oils during service. Automatic control and protection equipments, including fluidic, are described and the paper finally deals with the means adopted to improve reliability and to reduce maintenance.

The first part of this paper reviews the progress made in improving the aerodynamic design of axial flow turbines and describes experience at the National Gas Turbine Establishment (N.G.T.E.) in the use of some of these techniques. The second part of the paper discusses the present status of internal air cooling for turbine blades and shows how some of the design techniques established for aero-engines might be exploited in the field of power generation.

This paper describes some of the techniques employed by the author's company in the development of induction systems for direct-injection engines. Emphasis is placed upon those methods amenable to use during the day-to-day performance development of several engine types simultaneously. The induction system has two functions to perform: ( a) to provide maximum gravimetric aspiration, and ( b) to generate optimum and consistent swirl. These requirements are investigated using digital computers, air flow and swirl rigs, and engine experimental results. The effects of port size, port shape, valve timing, engine speed, and heat transfer on volumetric efficiency are presented in simplified theoretical and experimental forms. The behaviour of ports is discussed and a method of correlation of air swirl rig and engine results is presented. Experimental data is included, demonstrating the importance of correct swirl match. Fully machined inlet ports are discussed together with reasons for their adoption. The principles of induction pulse tuning are briefly enumerated and typical results included. Iso-fuel consumption curves are included to show the present level of d.i. engine performance. The paper concludes with a tentative hypothesis to explain engine swirl response, and suggests the general level of performance improvement likely during the next few years.

This paper shows that the hydrokinetic transmission is no newcomer to the field of trucks and buses and that in public service vehicles, in semi-automatic form, it is virtually standard equipment. Economic pressures, increasing traffic densities, etc., will lead to greater use of fully automatic transmissions in buses, and several notable fully automatic hydrokinetic public service vehicle transmissions are reviewed. In the trucking field, economic considerations are also creating a trend to larger and more powerful vehicles which will demand ease and certainty of control, and thus a place for fully automatic transmissions. An examination of the format of commercially successful fully automatic hydrokinetic truck and bus transmissions reveals that transmission designers have made extensive use of epicyclic gearing, and the paper includes an appreciation of the characteristics and advantages of this type of gearing.

This paper discusses the various types of engineering activity and their corresponding types of education, within broad definitions. The danger of stating an over-rigid definition of purposes is discussed, and methods of preventing this hazard are considered. The general trend of systems adopted by educational establishments is given, together with extracts from recent reports on engineering education. Some comments are also presented on an American summary of the future requirements for the engineering industry there. The paper gives some recommendations that may be considered in an attempt to produce a clearer definition of the objectives envisaged for any particular engineering course.

The basic requirements of the signalling and telecommunications scheme are presented in this paper. Details of maximum speed of various types of trains, average headway, desirability for consistency of aspects, all necessitated the provision of four-aspect colour-light signalling with continuous track circuiting. Originally, power signal boxes with limited range were programmed, but economic conditions necessitated reconsideration for some electromechanical boxes. Difficulties arising in the manning of the signal boxes later caused replanning for power signal boxes throughout with much longer sections controlled from each box following technical developments. Particulars are given of the telecommunications requirements in principle. The planning of the signalling and telecommunications schemes are dealt with in some detail with special reference to the various factors to be met. Sections of the paper deal with design factors and equipment both for signalling and telecommunications with special reference to the methods which had to be adopted to give immunization against inductive effects from the 25 000 V 50 c/s traction system. Particular reference is also made to the instances where other electrical factors had to be met. Developments which occurred during the progress of the scheme are detailed and their effect on the original design is mentioned. The planning and execution of the installation work and the testing and commissioning are described, with some reference to the maintenance of the works. At the end of the paper reference is made to present-day experiences and some remarks are presented about the future.

There is at present no single communications medium suitable for all types of compressor which demonstrates visually power, flow, temperature, and stress limits together on one diagram, in terms directly relevant to the process conditions with which the machines have to comply. This paper discusses the suitability of the line pressure diagram in meeting these requirements and points to some of the implications which this diagram presents, both for single and multi-machine installations of constant or variable speed, and for different types of machines in parallel or series arrangement. The paper constitutes a further development of information previously presented.

Engineering services nowadays account for between 20 and 60 per cent of the cost of construction, and are a major factor in operating costs of buildings. They must be provided as economically as possible and in proper relation to the design of the building and the needs of the users. The paper explores this theme from two aspects (1) thermal conditions, and plant sizing in relation to building design and (2) standardization of services for specific building types. The general effects of structural mass and window design are first discussed briefly and it is shown how these factors affect the temperature within naturally ventilated buildings in summer. Nominally sealed buildings are then considered and the size of refrigeration plant required for an office is discussed in terms of similar factors and in relation to the design conditions. Such relationships should be taken into account during sketch plan design. The paper considers service cores in multi-storey buildings, where the plan of the building lends itself to a measure of standardization in the services. This theme is developed with particular reference to mechanical ventilation for the service cores in a 17-storey block of flats. Some details of this installation are given and used as a basis for discussing standardized services. Greater use of such systems, designed on a once-for-all basis and catalogued, would reduce the effort devoted year by year to similar design situations. The examples used are drawn from current work of the Building Research Station.

Externally powered arm prostheses have, to date, with few exceptions been made with simple velocity control of each movement. In order to make such devices controllable the dynamic response must be relatively poor. A prosthesis is being built experimentally for which the specification is based on the biological requirements discussed in McWilliam's paper (see Paper 13). The arms are pneumatically powered and provided with position-control systems. The paper describes the design and construction of such a pair of arms, including a discussion of the problems involved in meeting the design specification while making the device acceptable in terms of weight and appearance.

The U.K.A.E.A. educates and trains its staff over a very wide range of staff and subject matter. A large amount of this is done internally in a number of schools and the paper describes the arguments in favour of this and, in some detail, the way in which it is done. The different groups of the Authority vary somewhat in their methods of training, but the overall principles and objectives are similar. Particular attention is given in the paper to the education and training of already formally qualified engineers because it is in this area that there are particular differences from what is normal practice, and special attention relevant to the nature of the atomic energy industry has to be given.

This paper from members of the Ministry of Defence (Navy) reviews the service in the Royal Navy of main propulsion gearboxes incorporating surface-hardened gears. The introduction of surface hardening for warship gears is described and the gear designs in use in the Fleet are discussed. Comment is made on the problems of procurement of surface-hardened gears. The very few defects experienced are described, some unexplained since they are of such a minor nature that the gears have not been removed and no full report is available. The paper concludes by indicating the Royal Navy's continued reliance on surface-hardened gears at even higher loads as a result of their research work.

The analysis of externally pressurized, plane, oil-film pads has been mainly restricted, in the current literature, to simple pad shapes without tilt or relative sliding action or squeeze effects. As tilt can arise owing to manufacturing tolerances, or by dynamic inertial forces causing elastic deformation, it is important to assess the combined effects of tilt and sliding action in order to predict such factors as the stability of the system or the onset of cavitation. This paper presents general numerical solutions from the Atlas digital computer of the Reynolds equation applied mainly to circular pressurized pads. Results for a square pad and for an infinitely wide pad are also given. The load and location of the centre of pressure, the impedance of the pad and thus the flow rate are calculated in dimensionless form for any combination of tilt, sliding velocity, and squeeze rate. It is argued that these calculated terms are required before any dynamical problem, involving loaded hydrostatic bearings, can be attempted and before refinements of film lubrication theory can be incorporated. This paper illustrates the application of the results to dynamical problems.

This paper reviews the various devices employed to meter passengers into or out of an automatic fare collection system, and discusses some methods of fare collection, with particular reference to the ‘stored fare’ system. It is suggested that the stored fare concept might be the most appropriate as it would not only be sufficiently adequate to fulfil the requirements of commuters in small- or large-scale networks but would also minimize fraudulent attempts at fare evasion. To effect a more rigid control over passengers in an automatic fare paying system, the paper also discusses certain modifications that will be necessary in station layouts.

The paper describes the lines on the London Midland Region of British Railways now electrified at 25 kV, 50-cycles, single-phase a.c. After discussing the commercial and other factors affecting the decision to electrify, the equipment is briefly described, followed by a more detailed account of the planning and execution of the installation work and the creation of the maintenance organization. The difficulties which have arisen with the equipment and the way in which they have been overcome or are being tackled are then described. The paper concludes by discussing factors which may influence the prospects of future a.c. electrification in this country.

Although research on the spiral-groove bearing is now being carried out in laboratories throughout the whole world, it is still an unknown type to the practising mechanical engineer. Apart from applications in certain specialized constructions, particularly in the form of gas bearings—carbon dioxide circulators in nuclear reactors and gyroscopes may be mentioned in this connection—it has not yet found its way into practical use. On the one hand this is attributable to the lack of theoretical information about this bearing, cast in the form to which the designer is used, and on the other hand it is because little is known about its possibilities. This is a pity, since the spiral-groove bearing—particularly when lubricated with oil or grease—offers a solution to all sorts of everyday (and more specialized) problems. In particular, this full-film lubricated bearing is very promising for replacing or supplementing porous bearings and ball bearings. This paper is specially intended to describe the new practical applications which the author has found for this bearing. Reference is also made to convenient and yet accurate methods of calculating optimum designs, which are available in published form but not yet generally known. An Appendix with a supplementary method for calculating spiral-groove bearings prestressed with elastic elements and grease-lubricated concludes the paper.

An unparalleled increase in the output of power-generating units in the last decade has made it necessary to reconsider the established boiler feed pump design philosophy. This paper deals with a number of design aspects which are of vital importance for the future development of a modern high head per stage boiler feed pump. The paper discusses the pressure and depression pulses that are generated when impeller vanes travel past the stationary vanes of guide equipment. It is considered that these pressure fluctuations can cause cavitational damage in the impeller and other parts, and also the uneven running of a pump. The influence of geometrical and hydraulic non-symmetry on radial forces in a double volute casing is dealt with. Test results of a double suction model boiler feed pump are presented, including descriptions of durability runs with paint-coated hydraulic surfaces.

This paper refers specially to current and future possible developments in the design of conventional steam plant in Britain. Trends in unit size and choice of steam cycles are discussed, and a comparison of generating costs with nuclear, oil, coal, and gas fuels is made. The design of these large units involves the parallel development of fuel-firing equipment which must be closely integrated with the design of the whole plant. The mills being supplied to plants which will be commissioned in the early 1970s are described, with reference to possible future development. Developments in oil and gas burners for large steam generators are outlined. Significant features of boiler designs for the 1970s are summarized. Welded-wall construction for drum-type and once-through steam generators, superheater and reheater designs, and auxiliary plant developments are discussed. The application of automatic starting and shutdown to new boiler plants is reviewed and comment is made on future development. The possible introduction of combined gas and steam cycles, and the effect on the design of the steam plant, is considered. The paper also describes typical designs for steam-generating plant of 250 MW and 660 MW capacity.

Attempts to solve the problem of transmitting high engine power to the drawbar have resulted in a variety of tractor designs. Measured rates of work on two- and four-wheel drive tractors and a tracklayer showed that while the four-wheel drive had the highest output, the tracklayer was more efficient for heavy draught operation. The two-wheel drive machine has a higher rolling resistance than the four-wheel drive and methods of measuring rolling resistance are described. The paper discusses the reasons that different performances are obtained from two- and four-wheel drive vehicles of the same engine power, and highlights some of the advantages to be gained. Previous theoretical work on two- and four-wheel drive tractor performance and on transmissions for four-wheel drive is also discussed, together with practical limitations on tyre size for operation under certain conditions. A small survey to measure tyre and track wear is described and a method is suggested of relating tyre wear to work done by quoting tyre costs per gallon of fuel used. The paper concludes with a few comments on soil compaction.

In the application of heating and ventilating systems to building projects widely varying performance and installation demands can be created by the needs of flexibility in the use of a building. Planning flexibility may require space that can be divided by various methods on a linear basis or, alternatively, on a two-dimensional basis, which lead to various forms of modular system design. The planning requirement may be further complicated by a range of performance requirements to meet a range of different uses. The paper deals with the evaluation of the problem and discusses the various approaches to service distribution, and how the problems of flexibility influence the distribution systems and the controllability required. The problem is particularly relevant to university buildings, and the paper describes how consideration of the same basic problem has led to two very different solutions with respect to two universities that have been designed, and indicates other factors which have influenced the resultant decisions.

In the optimum design of journal bearings it is important that the best possible estimate of the effective lubricant viscosity should be made. The temperature variation experienced by the lubricant is thus of con-siderable importance. Furthermore, the heat balance and the factors which influence the distribution of the heat produced by viscous dissipation are important when cooling characteristics are studied. This paper presents a report on the first stage of an investigation into the thermal equilibrium of steadily loaded journal bearings and an experimental investigation of temperature patterns and heat balance. The main objective of this part of the investigation was to provide background information for a theoretical analysis to be presented in a subsequent paper. The design and development of a swinging cradle type of testing machine are described, and the measure-ments of shaft torque, pressure distribution, oil flow rate, eccentricity, temperature distribution in the bush and shaft, and oil inlet and outlet temperatures have been recorded as functions of load and speed. A description of the appropriate instrumentation is also included. The essential characteristics of the experimental results are presented in graphical form and attention is drawn to several significant factors which provide the framework for subsequent theoretical analysis.

The paper points out why the rationalization of education in lubrication and wear, through its conceptual integration in machine design, is indispensable for the future development of machinery and, therefore, for that of national economies. The paper is mainly devoted to outlining a philosophy of approach in education, based on broad unifying principles and concepts that are tangible to those having to apply them, i.e. the designers of machinery. By means of this philosophy one may achieve the conceptual integration of education in lubrication and wear into machine design. The philosophy also meets the demand for organizing the bewildering store of present-day knowledge on lubrication and wear, both of a fundamental and an empirical nature. The ensuing classification of the various states of lubrication and the types of mechanical wear rests mainly on the distinction between ‘conformal’ and ‘counterformal’ rubbing surfaces. This distinction runs broadly parallel to, amongst other things, the nature of contact, the potentialities for achieving full fluid-film lubrication, and the flash temperatures obtaining. The unifying principle most typical of the field of lubrication and wear is that of contact inhibition, which reflects itself in the design principle of the protective layer. Much importance is attached also to principles that are not specific to lubrication and wear, but are generally applicable to the design of machinery. Such principles are exemplified by that of the optimal grouping of functions to be fulfilled and by the even more universal principle of the so-called ‘comparison of scales’. Last but not least, the present philosophy of unified approach may well lend itself, at least in essence, to rationalizing education in the much wider field of mechanical engineering in general.

The paper outlines training requirements for engineers in the process industries and discusses how they can be achieved. Attention is drawn to changes in the educational routes which are available now compared with 25 years ago. Methods of recruitment direct from school or from the universities are compared, and the need to select candidates with both technical and managerial ability is emphasized. Opportunities exist for the trained engineer in the following three main spheres: (1) As a design and project engineer whose prime responsibility is to organize new capital projects and, by his skill, influence future plant efficiency and operating costs. (2) As a maintenance engineer who, whilst primarily concerned with the introduction of novel and improved maintenance techniques, is also able to make a contribution to the design of new plant by suggesting modifications to reduce maintenance. (3) As a machinery development engineer in industries where automatic machinery is extensively used for processing and packaging, and where frequently suitable equipment may not be available commercially. The paper indicates the need for well-qualified people in each of these spheres and demonstrates that the scope and responsibility attached to the work are such as to provide adequate job satisfaction. Emphasis is laid on the need for the engineer to work as part of a team with development and production personnel and also with other service departments such as accounts and management services.