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This study was performed to examine an efficient way to use oil by-product which is obtained during the purification process of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) from safflower oil. The CLA by-product (CBP) was fed to the laying hens to accumulate CLA in the egg yolk. Egg yolk samples from 3 different dietary groups were analyzed: control; CBP, 2%; and CLA-80 (which contained 80% free form of CLA), 2%. Fatty acids from the yolk were analyzed by gas chromatography, and the parameters of egg quality were determined. During the feeding trial, there was little alteration in the egg quality and egg production of the tested groups. The CLA contents in the test group with CBP, which contain CLA as glyceride form, significantly increased in the first week of feeding and had the highest level among the tested groups throughout the feeding trials, whereas the CLA group showed an increase in CLA contents from the third week. Moreover, the contents of total CLA isomers in CLA-80 and CBP oils were decreased by 12.92 and 0.51% after heat treatment in 48 h, and the contents of linoleic acid (LA) isomer in LA-80 (which contained 80% free form of LA) and LA by-product (LBP) oils were decreased by 19.63 and 5.78%, respectively. It was confirmed that a major form of fats in CBP was mainly esterified forms, whereas the fats in CLA-80 and LA-80 were composed of free fatty acids. There was no significant difference in the egg quality and production among the tested groups. It is meaningful that the oil by-product could be utilized as a source for functional foods of animal origin without influencing egg quality and production.

This experiment was conducted to determine the effects of dietary safflower phospholipids (crude safflower phospholipid and purified safflower phospholipid) on performance and lipid metabolism of laying hens. Sixty-week-old Single Comb White Leghorn laying hens were divided into four groups of seven birds each, and were given one of four experimental diets containing 5% beef tallow (served as a control, tallow), a mixture of safflower oil and palm oil (SP-oil), crude safflower phospholipid (Saf-PLcrude), or purified safflower phospholipid (Saf-PL) for 7 wk. Egg production ratio and daily egg mass were significantly higher in hens fed Saf-PLcrude diets than in hens of the other diet groups. There were no significant differences in egg weight among groups. Liver cholesterol and triglyceride contents were significantly decreased in all treated groups as compared with the control. The activity of hepatic 3-hydroxy-3 methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase was the highest in hens fed the Saf-PLcrude diet. Serum esterified cholesterol concentration was decreased by feeding of SP-oil, Saf-PLcrude, or Saf-PL diets. Serum lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase activity was highest in hens fed the tallow diet. Excreta neutral steroid excretion was significantly increased in the Saf-PLcrude or Saf-PL diet groups, although acidic steroid excretion was not affected by dietary treatments. Total cholesterol, triglyceride, and phospholipid contents in egg yolks were not different for any dietary treatments. The fatty acid compositions of egg yolks from hens fed Saf-PLcrude diets were not different with those fed the SP-oil diet, although eggs of hens fed the Saf-PL diet showed lower total polyunsaturated fatty acids. These results suggest that dietary safflower phospholipids may be a valuable ingredient to layers for reducing liver triglycerides and serum cholesterol without any adverse effects.

The effect of emulsified lipids on broiler myofibril gelation was determined by measuring the strength and water-holding ability of gels made from composite myofibrils and lipids. White (breast) and red (leg) myofibrils were prepared from four randomized batches (replicates) of broilers. Myofibrils were suspended in .6 M NaCl, pH 6.0 and mixed with four types of emulsions (canola oil, safflower oil, lard, and milk fat) each at 0, 2, 5, 7.5, or 10% fat levels. Gels were induced by heating the mixtures from 10 to 70 C. Breast myofibril gel strength increased significantly (P .05) by vegetable oils. Addition of ≥ 5% fats or oils significantly reinforced leg myofibril gels, with fats generally showing a greater (P

Diets supplemented with 5% of tallow or safflower oil were fed to White Leghorn pullets during the initial 14 wk of production. The diets contained .6% and 4.3% of linoleic acid, respectively. Egg weight was consistently greater with the diet high in linoleic acid. Yolk weights relative to egg weights were similar in each sample, as were the yolk concentrations of total, neutral, and polar lipids. The fatty-acid profiles for both the neutral and the polar fractions were also similar for the large and small eggs within treatment, but there were differences between treatments. The lipid concentrations in the liver at the conclusion of the experiment were greater in the birds fed the diet low in linoleic acid as a result of increases in the neutral lipids. As with the yolk fatty acids, the substitution of safflower oil for tallow in the diet decreased the concentrations of oleic acid and increased the concentrations of linoleic acid in both lipid fractions. The constancy of the proportions of protein, neutral lipid, and polar lipid in the yolk, despite the effect of dietary linoleic-acid concentration on yolk size, supports the hypothesis that linoleic acid, or longer-chain fatty acids of the linoleic-acid family, is required for the synthesis of the lipoproteins that can be transported to the ovary for uptake by the developing ova. Egg size cannot be maximized if the amount of linoleic acid available is not adequate to support the maximum rate of synthesis by the lipoproteins.

Peroxisome proliferatior-activated receptor-gamma (PPARgamma) is a transcription factor that modulates lipid and glucose metabolism in mammals. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether chicken PPARgamma is expressed in tissues in a similar manner to mammalian PPAR and whether it is involved in the regulation of lipid metabolism, particularly in the regulation of fat accumulation in adipose tissue and ovaries. In 30-wk-old chickens, PPARgamma mRNA was detected in most tissues that were examined. Of those tissues expressing chicken PPARgamma mRNA, the lowest expression levels were found in adipose tissue, the tissue that in mammals was shown to express the highest levels of PPARgamma mRNA. Chicken PPARgamma mRNA expression in abdominal adipose tissue tended to increase with age, as shown by higher expression levels at 6 wk than at 1 and 2 wk of age. With regard to nutritional modulation, PPARgamma mRNA levels in abdominal adipose tissue were significantly higher in broiler chickens fed for 7 d a diet containing 8% safflower oil (18:2-rich) or linseed oil (18:3-rich) compared with chickens fed a diet containing olive oil (18:1-rich). In contrast, feeding a 3% cholesterol-supplemented diet for 7 d resulted in no changes to adipose PPARgamma mRNA expression. In broiler chickens orally administered troglitazone, a PPARgamma ligand, abdominal fat pad weight and PPARgamma and lipoprotein lipase (LPL) mRNA levels were significantly increased relative to those of control chickens. Levels of PPARgamma mRNA in liver, skeletal muscle, and ovaries were increased with the onset of egg laying, whereas in adipose tissue the level of PPARgamma mRNA was decreased. These findings suggest that PPARgamma plays an important role in the regulation of fat deposition and egg production and the characteristic pattern of PPARgamma mRNA expression may be indicative of specific differences in the lipid and glucose metabolism of chickens compared with mammals.

Broiler chicks were fed one of five diets from 3 d of age: a low energy diet containing 7% cellulose (ME 2,714 kcal/kg), or high energy diets containing approximately 7% of either tallow, corn oil, safflower oil, or fish oil (each 3,302 kcal/kg). Half of the chicks were injected intra-abdominally with Salmonella typhimurium lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on Day 11, sephadex on Day 13, and Freund's complete adjuvant on Day 15; samples were collected on Day 16. The uninjected chicks served as controls. In a second experiment, 3-d-old chicks were fed one of eight isocaloric diets containing tallow as the sole supplemental fat source, or tallow plus either 2% corn oil, 1, 1.5, or 2% fish oil, or fish meal at an amount to provide 1, 1.5 or 2% supplemental oil. Half of the chicks were injected intra-abdominally with S. typhimurium LPS on Days 10, 12 and 14; the uninjected chicks served as controls. Samples were taken on Day 15. In Experiment 1, the cellulose diet decreased performance to 10 d of age relative to the other diets, whereas immunogen injection decreased weight gain and feed efficiency and increased indices of inflammation among all dietary groups. Fish oil at approximately 7% of the diet did not improve weight gain. Fish oil diets improved weight gain and feed efficiency in Experiment 2 relative to the other diets, in spite of minimal effects on indices of inflammation. Injection of LPS decreased performance and increased inflammation across dietary treatment, although the second LPS injection was less potent in altering performance responses and inflammation compared to the first injection, indicating that repeated injections of LPS amy cause the chicks to become refractory to that stimulus. The fish meal diets resulted in poorer performance than similar levels of lipid provided as fish oil. Lower levels of dietary fish oil were more efficacious in improving broiler performance than higher levels, and fish oil provided from fish meal was not as efficacious as oil per se, possibly due to nonlipid components of the meal.

Blood lipid concentrations and hepatic cholesterol synthesis were compared in Japanese quail fed diets containing fats with different fatty acid profiles. The quail fed a diet containing tuna oil had the lowest blood cholesterol concentration; those fed beef drippings the highest, and those fed safflower oil or linseed oil had intermediate concentrations. Rates of hepatic cholesterol synthesis mirrored the results for serum cholesterol concentration. Serum triglyceride concentrations were lower in the quail fed the two diets containing n-3 fatty acids in comparison with the beef and safflower treatment groups.

Studies were conducted to determine the effects of increased dietary levels of vitamin and trace mineral mixtures, methionine, meat and bone meal, fish meal, and safflower oil on foot pad dermatitis in dwarf and normal size Single Comb White Leghorn layers. All layers were maintained in individual wire cages throughout a 40-week experiment period. Individual birds were scored for the incidence of foot pad dermatitis and production parameters were recorded. No significant decrease in the incidence of dermatitis was observed from the following dietary supplements: a 50% increase in a vitamin or a complete trace mineral mixture; a 50% increase in an iron, copper, iodine, and cobalt or a manganese and zinc mixture; .05% methionine; 5% meat and bone meal; 3% herring fish meal; or 2% safflower oil. It was concluded that these mixtures or supplements containing such dermatitis preventative agents as pantothenic acid, zinc, and linoleic acid appeared without effect in minimizing expression of the condition in dwarfs.

Effects of dietary lipid factors (saturated and unsaturated oil, cholesterol and plant sterols) on the serum and egg yolk cholesterol levels of the laying hen were investigated. Single Comb White Leghorn laying hens, at thirty weeks of age, were used in two trials by feeding two basal diets containing 8.0% hydrogenated coconut oil or safflower oil, with or without supplemental cholesterol (1.0%), soysterols (2.0%) or combinations of both. Safflower oil, per se, had a superior property to hydrogenated coconut oil in suppressing cholesterol levels, in both serum and egg yolk. Cholesterol supplementation to the safflower oil basal diet resulted in a significant (P less than 0.01) elevation of serum and egg yolk cholesterol levels, whereas cholesterol in combination with hydrogenated coconut oil did not change the serum level. Cholesterol lowering effect of soysterols was clearly demonstrated in both serum and egg yolk by feeding soysterols alone as well as by feeding soysterols in combination with cholesterol.

Effect of dietary lipid factors (saturated and unsaturated oil, zoo and phytosterols) on the lipid concentration and fatty acid composition of egg yolk, liver and serum of the laying hen were studied. Single Comb White Leghorn laying hens, at 30 weeks of age, were fed two basal diets containing 8.0% hydrogenated coconut oil (HCO) or safflower oil (SFO), with or without supplemental cholesterol (1.0%), soysterols (2.0%) or combination of both. When HCO basal diet was fed, both liver weight and lipid content were significantly (P less than .01) increased as compared to hens fed the SFO diet. Cholesterol feeding increased total lipid content in liver and serum, whereas soysterol feeding reduce or diminish lipid accumulation caused by the cholesterol treatment. Both dietary cholesterol and soysterols alter the fatty acid composition of liver, serum and egg yolk lipids by increasing oleic acid and decreasing palmitic and/or stearic acids. These changes were significantly greater upon feeding cholesterol than soysterols. However, the simultaneous feeding of cholesterol with soysterols exerted the least effect on the fatty acid composition.

Various factors affecting the experimental development of nutritional encephalomalacia (NE) were studied in young chicks. The effects of these factors were evaluated by calculation of the age at which one-half were affected (T½). The incidence of ataxia and mortality and statistical analysis of the intensity of the disease were also calculated. No differences were found among the safflower oil samples oxidized for periods ranging from 12 to 48 hr in their potency to induce NE, while oil oxidized for 72 hr was less effective. No difference was observed between the effects of oxidized safflower oil and freshly distilled methyl esters of safflower oil on the development of NE. This disorder was more severe in chicks fed a fat-free diet deficient in vitamin E for the first week and then the NE-inducing diet than in chicks fed the NE-inducing diet from hatching. Feeding chicks vitamin E for the first week delayed the development of encephalomalacia but did not prevent it. In order to prevent NE in young chicks fed oxidized safflower oil, a ratio of .3 mg α-tocopherol per gram oil was required.

Four experiments were conducted with chicks to determine whether the heating of vegetable oil and its contamination with iron might have detrimental effects upon its use in chicken diets. Soybean oil and safflower oil heated at 230 C for 51 hr and linseed oil heated at 240 C for 24 hr gave reduced growth when fed to chickens at 20 percent of the diet. Heating soybean oil at 175 C for 51 hr had no detrimental effect. However, iron at 5000 ppm depressed growth significantly when fed in a low fat diet. The depression was greatly reduced when soybean oil was fed at 10 or 20% of the diet. A different lot of soybean oil was found to cause skin dermatitis and high mortality when fed at 20% of the diet due to its physical contamination on the skin.

There is little doubt that high blood serum lipid levels are related to a higher incidence of atherosclerotic disease in humans. Experimental evidence to date suggests that dietary intervention can reduce blood lipid levels in most cases and that some small reduction in occurrence of cardiovascular disease will probably result. On the other hand no reduction in total mortality has been demonstrated in the well constructed dietary studies. It appears that there is considerable variation in the human population with regard to their patterns of lipid metabolism. Some apparently regulate body production of cholesterol in response to dietary changes, others do not. Some seem to excrete excess sterols efficiently, while some do not. It seems likely, therefore, that dietary manipulation would be useful for those disposed by heredity and other conditions to accumulation of excessive sterols in the body. On the other hand drug control of cholesterol biosynthesis and/or sterol excretion may be more effective solutions to the problem of sterol accumulation. Irrespective of whether diet or drugs prove to be the best answer to control of sterol balance, these should be applied only to that segment of the population known to require such treatment. The egg is an important dietary source of cholesterol and as a result is used sparingly in low cholesterol diets. On the other hand normal egg consumption of two eggs per day does not appear to overload cholesterol balance in the healthy human adult since depression in cholesterol biosynthesis and increased sterol excretion will result. Investigation of the lipid metabolism of the laying hen has shown that most of the cholesterol found in the egg is synthesized in the liver where it is under both dietary and drug control. Most of the cholesterol deposited in egg yolk may be essential for embryonic development. Drugs that severely limit cholesterol biosynthesis probably also limit synthesis of adrenal and sex hormones and hence limit reproduction. Moderate depressions in lipogenesis achieved without feeding of large amounts of dietary fat may offer a means for moderating cholesterol deposition in eggs. On the other hand, it also seems clear that genetic selection could be used to moderate egg cholesterol concentration. In any event, a great deal more evidence from well constructed human diet studies will be needed before low cholesterol diets can be recommended to the general population as an aid to control of cholesterol balance and heart disease.

DURING the course of our investigations on the linoleic acid (18:2) requirement of the hen for reproduction, a malformation of the toes of newly-hatched chicks was observed. This deformity ascribed to a deficiency of 18:2 was first reported by Menge (1968a). The purpose of this paper is to present detailed observations on the percentage of incidence and the different classes of the severity of the toe abnormality. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE In the first experiment 18:2 deficient Leghorn hens were distributed into 7 groups of 28 hens each. The groups received a low-fat isolated soy protein diet described by Menge (1968b) supplemented with 18:21 as follows: zero 0.125. 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, and 4% respectively. Hatching data from this experiment were collected from 20 consecutive weekly hatches (Table 1). The second experiment comprised 12 groups of 15 hens each. Groups 1 through 11, deficient in 18:2, received the isolated soy protein diet. . .

THE production of safflower has continued to increase in this country, resulting in renewed interest in the use of the by-product of this seed as an additional source of protein for poultry feeding. Undecorticated safflower meal, because of the heavy and fibrous hull, contains only 20 percent protein and as high as 35 percent fiber. By a decortication process it is possible to remove a large portion of the hull, which will result in the production of a meal in which the protein may exceed 50 percent with a resulting low fiber content. Most meals produced by this process generally contain from 35 to 40 percent protein and 12 to 15 percent fiber. A study of safflower protein for chick growth was first reported by Kratzer and Williams (1947). Two lots of meal, prepared in their laboratory, contained 29.1 and 27.2 percent crude protein. The meal was fed as the …

THE addition of animal fat to the diet of laying hens has been reported to increase the weight of eggs (Hochreich et al., 1958). The design of this experiment did not allow these workers to determine whether the increase in egg weights was due to increased energy level of the diet or to the addition of the animal fat. However, Orr et al. (1958) reported that the addition of fat to a laying diet did not affect size of eggs, while Berg and Bearse (1957) reported that increased energy content of the diet resulted in increased egg weight. Jensen et al. (1957, 1958) reported that an unidentified factor was necessary in order to obtain maximum egg size; and that yellow corn was a source of this factor. Shutze, Jensen and McGinnis (1959) found that corn oil, safflower oil, and wheat germ oil contained the unidentified nutritional factor necessary for maximum…

JENSEN et al. (1958) presented evidence of an unidentified factor in yellow corn and in certain other feedstuffs necessary for maximum egg weight. A level of 70% corn or 3% crude corn oil in the diet increased egg weight. Further studies by Shutze et al. (1958) showed that when corn oil was oxidized, the factor was inactivated or destroyed, and that the factor was in the saponifiable fraction and stable to heat. Another series of experiments has been undertaken to determine the influence on egg weight of linoleic acid, methyl linoleate and natural oils which are generally high in linoleic acid. PROCEDURE Three experiments were conducted with Single Comb White Leghorn pullets maintained in individual cages. The treatments were randomly assigned to groups of six birds. Egg weight change was determined by calculating the difference between the average egg weight at the end of a 4–8 week depletion period…

PROBABLY the earliest report of an uncomplicated essential fatty acid (EFA) deficiency in chicks was Bieri et al. (1956). These workers reported obtaining a very small growth response to added fat when chicks were fed a purified low fat diet for 10 to 12 weeks. Rand et al. (1958) and Dam et al. (1959) then presented evidence indicating that the chick would respond to fat supplementation during the first few weeks. The two groups of workers interpreted their results quite differently; however, Rand et al. (1958) interpreted their results to indicate a nonspecific response to fat probably due to protein sparing while Dam et al. (1959) interpreted their results as indicating the need for some unknown factor in the oil (possibly an essential fatty acid). Machlin and Gordon (1961) conducted studies indicating that methyl linoleate had the same activity as safflower oil in promoting growth of chicks, while methyl linolenate . . .

Potato starch depressed the growth rate of chicks significantly when it was the main source of carbohydrates. Whether fed alone or together with glucose at a ratio of 1:1, it adversely affected feed efficiency in general, and the utilization of dietary nitrogen, fat and nitrogen-free extract (N.F.E.) in particular. The addition of α-tocopheryl acetate to diets low in vitamin E and containing potato starch and oxidized safflower oil, improved the retention of nitrogen, fat and NFE, but did not affect efficiency. Pronounced differences in α-amylase activity between chicks fed corn and potato starch were observed only when the latter supplied the major part of the dietary carbohydrate. Under these conditions pancreatic α-amylase activity was higher in chicks fed potato starch, but was lower in the chyme obtained from various parts of the intestinal tract.

BHT and ethoxyquin (EQ) at a level of 125 mg./kg. protected with equal effectiveness lipid components in practical-type and semi-purified diets held during period of 27 weeks at temperatures which ranged from 18°C. to 26°C. These antioxidants acted similarly in improving body weights, feed/gain ratio and liver vitamin A, but only when tested under conditions which led to deterioration of unprotected diets. EQ as well as BHT increased the accumulation of xanthophylls in livers of chicks, this effect being greater than expected from their stabilization of dietary xanthophylls. EQ significantly improved the stability of liver lipids (TBA values) as compared with the unsupplemented control, but not as compared with BHT. TBA values were also significantly affected by α-tocopheryl acetate and the quality of the dietary oil. EQ, but not BHT, at levels of 80 and 120 mg./kg., almost completely prevented encephalomalacia in chicks fed a semi-purified diet low in vitamin E, and containing oxidized safflower oil. Results of this study indicate that under practical conditions neither antioxidant showed a clear superiority over the other.

MILLER et al. (1963), Menge et al. (1963, 1965a, b), and Edwards (1963), all reported a reduction in hatchability of fertile eggs from hens receiving linoleic acid deficient diets as compared with fertile eggs from hens receiving from .5 to 3.0% linoleic acid. These findings showed that hatchability of fertile eggs may be reduced to zero when hens receive a diet containing less than 0.02% linoleic acid throughout the growing and laying period (Menge et al., 1963, 1965a,b). Also, early embryonic mortality, 0–7 days, was increased in eggs from deficient hens (Menge et al., 1965a), and there was an increase in hatchability when linoleic acid deficient eggs were incubated for 24 to 26 hours after the normal 21-day incubation period (Miller et al., 1963). Except for these observations, no other characteristics of reduced hatchability from a linoleic acid deficiency in the hen have been reported. This study was designed …

THE utility of the Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) as an experimental animal in investigations concerned with physiological, genetic and nutritional studies has been aptly demonstrated. The present study was to determine if linoleic acid deficiency had the same effects on reproductive performance of the Japanese quail as those observed in the chicken. MATERIAL AND METHODS Eight-week-old female quail, which had been fed a 24% protein quail starter diet for 4 weeks and a 20% protein breeder diet for 4 weeks preceding the experimental period, were used in these studies. Twenty birds each were randomly assigned to two experimental treatments for a period of 12 weeks and housed, 1 bird per cage, in a quail breeder battery with wire mesh floors. One treatment received the basal linoleic acid deficient laying diet described by Calvert (1967), and the other received the same diet supplemented with safflower oil to furnish 3.0% linoleic…

A DIETARY requirement for essential fatty acids for chicks and hens has been conclusively demonstrated in recent years by several investigators (Bieri et al., 1956; Machlin and Gordon, 1960; Hopkins et al., 1960). Lack of a source of linoleic acid in the diet of young chicks results in suboptimal growth rate, enlarged, fatty livers and reduced resistance to respiratory infections (Marion and Edwards, 1962; Ross and Adamson, 1961; Hopkins et al., 1963). Laying hens deficient in linoleic acid lay fewer and smaller eggs with markedly reduced fertility and hatchability (Menge et al., 1965). Several workers showed that linoleic acid nearly disappears from depot fat and tissue lipids when essential fatty acid deficient diets are fed (Bieri et al., 1957; Machlin and Gordon, 1961). Concurrent with low levels of linoleic acid, a significant quantity of 5,8,11-eicosatrienoic acid appears in tissue lipids of essential fatty acid deficient chicks. This faty acid has …

THE economic advantages of the grain sorghums over corn in the Southwest and West have led to the extensive use of these grains in poultry rations in these sections of the country. In recent years, the nutritional value of the grain sorghums (compared with corn) has become the subject of studies with both chicks and laying hens. Some of these studies tend to indicate that inferior performance may be encountered under some conditions with grain sorghum diets; while other reports show the grains to be of equal value for poultry. Holst and Newton (1927), Payne (1926), Sherwood (1926) and Hammond (1942), all agreed that grain sorghum could be substituted in part for white or yellow corn in diets for laying hens. Adolph and Grau (1956) and Berry (1958) observed no significant differences between the two grains when compared in laying hen diets. In the last few years, some workers have …

NUMEROUS experiments with laying hens conducted at this laboratory over the past several years have demonstrated that purified diets did not support reproductive performance equal to that obtained with practical diets. Both types of diets were formulated to contain adequate quantities of all known essential nutrients. Menge (1967) observed that rate of egg production, egg weight and hatchability of fertile eggs were significantly lower for hens fed a casein-gelatin-glucose diet compared with a corn-soybean diet. Substitution of isolated soy protein for casein and gelatin in the purified diet improved egg weight and hatchability but not rate of egg production. Young (1969) also noted that hens fed purified diets laid smaller eggs than hens fed a practical diet. The Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) was selected to further investigate this problem. Wilson et al. (1961) described characteristics which make the Japanese quail a useful animal for research. Quail also eat less…

A LOSS of tocopherol upon storage of tissue at −20°C. was reported in two studies. Dju et al. (1958) showed that a loss of 20% occurred in human liver tissue which was stored in a plastic bag for 8 weeks and a 34% loss after 109 weeks. The other study (Pollard and Bieri, 1959) showed that there was approximately a 32% loss of tocopherol in bovine heart muscle which was stored for 25 days. In contrast, Diplock et al. (1960) reported that no loss was evident either in a prepartion of rabbit liver stored for 6 weeks or horse heart muscle stored for 28 weeks at −20°. The possible loss of tocopherol upon storage at this temperature caused some apprehension in this laboratory, since the assumption had been made in previous studies that no loss occurred upon storage at −20°. Prior to further tocopherol experimentation, it was essential to know . . .

THE response of laying hens to dietary oils containing linoleic acid has been studied recently by a number of researchers. Hopkins and Nesheim (1962) reported that fat deficient laying hens apparently do not need a source of dietary linoleic acid in order to maintain egg production, fertility and hatchability. However, the feeding of safflower oil as a source of linoleic acid resulted in hens laying somewhat heavier eggs. In contrast, it has been shown by Machlin and Dudley (1962), Marion and Edwards (1962 Marion and Edwards (1963) and Menge et al. (1963) that laying hens respond to dietary sources of linoleic acid by maintaining higher egg production, larger egg size and a higher rate of hatchability. Jensen et al. (1958) reported that adding corn oil to a low fat diet would increase egg size. This response was attributed to the presence of a fat soluble unidentified factor in corn oil. More recently, Jensen…

THE production of safflower in this country has increased enormously in the last few years. The oil may be removed from the safflower seed commercially and the residue which is left is available for animal and poultry feeding. The undecorticated safflower cake contains 20.2 percent protein and 33.0 percent fiber (Woodman, 1945) and is of little interest to the poultry industry because of its high fiber content. However, by a decortication process it is possible to produce a meal with much higher protein and lower fiber content which compares favorably in gross analysis to other vegetable oil seed products commonly used in poultry rations. Previous work (Kratzer and Williams, 1947) showed that slight deficiencies of arginine, lysine, methionine, and either or both glycine and cystine were produced when safflower protein was fed as the only protein source in a chick ration. The safflower meals used in this work were samples . . .

Card et al. (1930) and Singsen et al. (1954) have reported that vitamin E deficiencies have no effect on fertility or egg production. However, it was found to be essential for the maintenance of hatchability. Jensen et al. (1953), working with turkey breeder hens, reported findings which confirm the above work. Bieri et al. (1960) found that two artificial inseminations resulted in fertile eggs which failed to hatch; however, poor incubation facilities may have been the primary factor in this failure. These results do not coincide with those of Machlin et al. (1962). These researchers, using a purified vitamin E deficient diet, reported that at the end of an eight week period, egg production had declined from 78% to 25%, fertility was reduced to 37%, and hatchability to zero. The workers at this station believed that since fertility is primarily a mechanical factor it should not be affected by a …

Nutritional encephalopathy was induced in young chicks by vitamin E-deficient diets containing either 4% methyl esters of safflower oil or 10% thermally oxidized safflower oil. The coccidiostat nicarbazin (an equimolecular complex of 4,4'-dinitrocarbanilide and 2-hydroxy 4,6-dimethylpyrimidine) reduced the incidence of encephalopathy, but zoalene (3,5-dinitro-o-toluamide) and amprolium [1-(4-amino-2-n-propyl-5-pyrimidinylmethyl)-2-picolinium chloride hydrochloride] did not. Neither of the two components of nicarbazin affected the rate of development of encephalopathy when fed separately, but when included together in the diet, they reduced the incidence of the disease.

Potato starch used as an ingredient in a semi-synthetic vitamin E-deficient diet containing oxidized safflower oil, with or without BHT supplementation, caused a higher incidence of encephalomalacia than did corn starch. Oxidized safflower oil was most effective in promoting the disease followed by oxidized soybean oil, fresh safflower oil and oxidized soybean-oil soapstock. Cod liver oil, either fresh or oxidized, caused relatively few cases of this disease. Fresh soybean oil or soybean soapstock did not induce encephalomalacia. Yellow corn or soybean soapstock, when added to an encephalomalacia-inducing diet, lowered the incidence of the disease in proportion to the amount of α-tocopherol or total reducing substances which they supplied. Dietary non α-tocopherol reducing substances markedly decreased mortality due to encephalomalacia in the presence of relatively low levels of dietary α-tocopherol.

THE levels of 5,8,11-eicosatrienoate (triene) and arachidonate (tetraene) in animal tissues have been shown to be related to dietary linoleate (18:2). Holman (1960) first demonstrated that the ratio of triene:tetraene in the tissues of the rat is indicative of the essential fatty acid status of the animal. This criterion has been used by others to determine the 18:2 requirement of chicks. Hill (1966) estimated the 18:2 requirement of the male chick to be 2% of total dietary calories by plotting the ratio of triene:tetraene versus the percentage of total calories supplied by 18:2. Bieri and Prival (1966) determined the 18:2 requirement of male chicks on the basis of growth and the triene:tetraene ratio of fatty acids in liver and erythrocytes and found the requirement to be between 1–1.8%. Later, Hopkins and Nesheim (1967) estimated the requirement of straight-run chicks to be approximately 2.2 to 3.8% of total calories. Since…

FEIGENBAUM and Fisher (1959) demonstrated that the degree of saturation of body fat could be influenced by the ingestion of both saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. Egg fat saturation could be influenced only by the ingestion of unsaturated fatty acids. In these studies, linoleic acid replaced oleic acid in the egg so that iodine number increased, but the ratio of saturated to unsaturated fatty acids remained constant. Similar results were obtained by Wheeler et al. (1959). These workers fed safflower oil at levels ranging from 5 to 30% and found that the linoleic acid content of egg lipids was proportional to the diet content of linoleic acid. The principal change accompanying an increase in linoleic acid was a corresponding decrease in oleic and palmitoleic acids such that the ratio of saturated to unsaturated acids was unchanged. The lack of incorporation of saturated fatty acids into the egg while adipose tissue …