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Water-miscible vitamin E (WVE) has been known to be more bioavailable than conventional lipid-soluble vitamin E (LVE) in human foods because of its greater solubility in the gastrointestinal tract. However, no data regarding the comparison of the efficacy of WVE to LVE were available in poultry diets. The objective of the current experiment was to investigate the effect of vitamin E (VE) sources and inclusion levels in diets on growth performance, meat quality, alpha-tocopherol retention, and intestinal inflammatory cytokine expression in broiler chickens. A total of 420 6-d-old broiler chicks were allotted to 1 of 7 dietary treatments with 6 replicates in a completely randomized design. The corn-soybean meal-based basal diet was formulated without inclusion of supplemental VE. Additional 6 diets were prepared by supplementing the basal diet with either WVE or LVE at the inclusion levels of 33, 65, or 100 IU/kg in diets. Diets were fed to birds for 26 d. Results indicated that different VE sources and inclusion levels from 33 to 100 IU/kg in diets had no effects on growth performance in broilers. The VE sources did not affect lipid oxidation in both breast and thigh meat. However, increasing inclusion levels of VE decreased (linear and quadratic, P0.05) lipid oxidation in breast meat. Regardless of VE sources, increasing inclusion levels of VE increased (linear, P0.01) alpha-tocopherol concentrations in breast meat. Dietary WVE showed a greater reduction in the expression of both pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine genes in the jejunum than dietary LVE. Increasing inclusion levels of both VE sources decreased (linear and quadratic, P0.05) the expression of both pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine genes in the jejunum. The efficacy of dietary WVE for growth performance, meat quality, lipid oxidation, and alpha-tocopherol retention in broilers chickens is similar to that of dietary LVE. However, it is likely that dietary WVE is more effective in decreasing intestinal inflammatory responses than dietary LVE in broilers.

A trial was conducted to investigate whether, and if so to what extent, the combined supplementation of vitamin E, vitamin C, and selenium was superior to their sole supplementation concerning the oxidative stress induced by a high n-3 dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) intake in broilers. Four hundred 21-day-old Ross 308 male broilers were allocated to 5 experimental groups fed the following linseed oil (5%)-enriched finisher diets: Cont (no supplement), +E (200 IU vitamin E/kg feed), +C (250 mg vitamin C/kg feed), +Se (0.2 mg selenium/kg feed), or +ECSe (concentrations as in the sole supplementation, combined). Analyses of malondialdehyde (MDA), vitamin C, and α- and γ-tocopherols in plasma, antioxidant capacity of water- (ACW) and lipid- (ACL) soluble compounds in serum, and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities in whole blood were performed. In breast muscle, analyses of MDA, α- and γ-tocopherols, ACW, selenium, and fatty acid (FA) composition were carried out. Birds fed the combination of antioxidants showed reduced average daily gain (ADG) and average daily feed intake (ADFI) and, as +E, lower MDA and γ-tocopherol, together with raised α- tocopherol levels in plasma and lower MDA and raised α- tocopherol levels in breast muscle compared to the control. The combination of antioxidants in the +ECSe group raised GPx activity in whole blood compared to the control. In conclusion, results indicated that vitamin E is the most effective antioxidant to alleviate oxidative stress caused by high dietary PUFA and that the supplementation with additional vitamin C and selenium did not have clear synergistic effect.

Reactive oxygen species and free radicals play multiple roles in some immune-pathological events. Vitamin E, as a very potent antioxidant, perhaps deceases the potentially negative effects of such oxidative stress to prevent immune-pathological damage to broilers. Therefore, the current study investigated the effects of dietary natural (D-α-tocopherol) and synthetic (DL-α-tocopherol acetate) vitamin E on the growth performance and antioxidant capacity in cyclophosphamide (CY) immunosuppressed broilers. 192 one-day-old male Arbor Acre broilers were randomly distributed into 4 groups: 1) non-CY-challenged control; 2) CY-challenged control; 3) CY-challenged group+20 IU DL-α-tocopherol acetate per kg feed; and 4) CY-challenged group+20 IU D-α-tocopherol per kg feed. The maize-soybean basal diet in the control group contained α-tocopherol (7.12 mg/kg). Broilers were intramuscularly injected with 80 mg/kg body weight of CY or sterile saline at 16, 17, and 18 d of age. CY decreased (P 0.05) the average daily gain and average daily feed intake, but vitamin E did not alter the growth performance of broilers before or after CY injection (P 0.05). The decreased absolute weight of the spleen, thymus and bursa, serum interleukin 2 (IL-2), and interleukin 6 (IL-2) concentrations in CY-treated broilers were alleviated by vitamin E (P 0.05) . The decreased relative weight (g/kg body weight) of the bursa in the CY-treated broilers was increased by natural vitamin E (P 0.05). The CY-induced increases in malondialdehyde (MDA) content and decreases in total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), glutathione, vitamin C, and α-tocopherol levels, and total superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activities in both serum and the liver were attenuated by vitamin E (P 0.05). Additionally, natural vitamin E increased α-tocopherol and T-AOC levels and decreased MDA content in the liver of CY-treated broilers (P 0.05) when compared to the synthetic form. In summary, both synthetic and natural vitamin E supplementation improved lymphoid organ weights, serum IL-2 and IL-6 levels, and antioxidant capacity of immunosuppressed broilers induced by CY. Especially, natural vitamin E was superior to the synthetic form and enhanced α-tocopherol and T-AOC levels, reduced MDA concentration in the liver, and alleviated the immune damage of the bursa.

The objective of the present study was to ascertain the effect of in ovo feeding of vitamin E (VE) on the incubation results, quality, and oxidative state of newborn chicks and on the initial performance results. The design consisted of randomized blocks with treatments at different levels of VE (0.0, 27.5, 38.5, 49.5, and 60.4 IU). On 17.5 d of embryonic development, 780 eggs underwent in ovo injection using a manual needle. VE supplementation of 60.4 IU provided the highest hatching rate (P0.05) and shortest hatch window (P0.05). Better results regarding chick physical quality were observed in groups supplemented with VE (body weight, length, newborn chick quality score) and higher chick weight/egg weight ratios (P0.05). VE inoculation did not have any effect on the chicks' immunological system (P0.05). Greater development of the small intestine (intestine weight/yolk free chick weight and higher villi in duodenum) and better feed conversion over all periods studied (1 to 7, 1 to 14, and 1 to 21 d) were observed among chicks that received in ovo VE supplementation (P0.05). The total protein concentrations in the liver and striated breast skeletal muscle tissue were highest in chicks that received 60.4 IU of VE (P0.05). The highest catalase activity was observed in the livers of newborn chicks supplemented with 60.4 IU of VE (P0.05). It was concluded that in ovo VE supplementation improved the chicks' oxidative state, which led to improvements in incubation results, chick quality and performance results.

The effect of a dietary oregano aqueous extract on meat fatty acid profile, quality, and consumer acceptance in chickens fed a diet rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) was evaluated in 3 consecutive trials.For each trial, 171 day-old Ross 308 chicks were randomly divided in replicates of 19 birds each and assigned to one of 3 experimental diets: 1) basal control diet, 2) basal diet supplemented with 0.2 g/kg of oregano aqueous extract, and 3) basal diet supplemented with 150 ppm of vitamin E (as positive control). To better analyze the antioxidant activity of both oregano and vitamin E, all the experimental diets were enriched with a fatty acid supplement consisting in a mixture of PUFA at the same dose (1.16 %) in both starter and finisher feeds. Oregano supplementation positively influenced (P < 0.05) broiler live performance. No differences were observed in physicochemical or proximal composition or in total fatty acid composition of breast meat. Dietary oregano influenced meat composition in terms of total phenolic content, antioxidant capacity, and thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances, improving meat resistance to oxidation, compared to both other groups. During consumer tests, meat from the 3 dietary groups obtained the same liking score in a blind session. Under informed condition, consumer perception was positively influenced by labeling for all the considered attributes. Furthermore, consumers showed a higher expectation for meat derived from chickens fed the oregano extract when compared to that deriving from the other 2 groups.Results obtained in the present study allow stating that using oregano aqueous extract in diets enriched with PUFA can represent a valid solution to increase live weight of chickens, improve resistance to oxidation of meat, and positively influence consumer perception of poultry meat.

Prevention of lipid oxidation needs special attention because a high proportion of fatty acids in broiler meat are unsaturated. A feeding experiment was conducted to evaluate the antioxidant effect of dietary addition of rosemary, chokeberry pomace, rosehip, or nettle in comparison with vitamin E. Male Ross PM3 broilers caged in groups of 6 (4 replicated cages per treatment) were fed a balanced diet supplemented with 25 g/kg of herbal additive, 200 IU of α-tocopheryl acetate/kg, or without supplementation from d 7 to 35. Intake, performance, and with the help of excreta samples, apparent fiber digestibility, ME content, and metabolizability of nitrogen and energy were recorded per cage. Feed was analyzed for total phenols and tocopherols. In each bird (n = 24 per treatment), carcass weight and relative organ weights were recorded, and skin and liver color were assessed. Abdominal fat was analyzed for induction time (h) of lipid oxidation (Rancimat). Breast meat was analyzed for total tocopherol content (mg/kg) and development of TBA reactive substances (TBARS; μg of MDA/kg) over 9 d of storage. Data were subjected to ANOVA considering treatment and, where applicable, storage time. Rosemary supplementation reduced oxidation (TBARS d 9: 201; induction time: 2.48) and elevated tocopherol content (5.72) of the meat compared with control (470, 1.87, and 3.53, respectively). Rosemary-treated birds had a slightly lower carcass weight and a reduced nitrogen and energy metabolizability. Rosehip addition numerically decreased TBARS (319) and enhanced carcass weight (1.71 kg) compared with rosemary-treated birds (1.54 kg). Only a trend in antioxidant activity could be ascribed to chokeberry pomace, although dietary phenolic content was highest. Nettle did not improve oxidative stability (TBARS: 506; induction time: 1.91), although tocopherol content was elevated (6.51). Nettle treatment strongly intensified skin yellowness (b* of 20.6) compared with the control treatment (10.8). Clearly, rosemary is the most suitable dietary antioxidant investigated in this study, yet chokeberry and rosehip also exhibited interesting properties.

Dioxins have adverse and multifaceted effect on body functions. They are known to be carcinogens, immunotoxins, and teratogenic agents. In vivo, transformation of dioxins occurs after their interaction with the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and leads to formation of proinflammatory and toxic metabolites. The aim of this study was to verify whether α-tocopherol (vitamin E) and acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), could reduce the damage caused by the action of dioxins. Fertile chicken eggs were injected with a solution of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), followed by the injection of α-tocopherol or acetylsalicylic acid. Organs such as heart and liver were dissected from the chick embryos at d 13 and 19 of development and subjected to immunohistochemical analysis of presence of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) and nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB) in tissues. The AGEs were used as the marker for exposure to dioxins, since it is well established that their level increases in dioxin-damaged tissues. Formation of AGEs was evaluated in embryos exposed to dioxin and treated with vitamin E and/or ASA (against dioxin-exposed, untreated controls). We have found that TCDD causes developmental disorders and increases the level of AGEs in chick embryo tissues. The use of such pharmacological agents as vitamin E, ASA, and combination of ASA and vitamin E, inhibited formation of the AGEs in 13-day-old embryos and reduced the AGEs level in embryos after 19 d of the development.

This study was carried out to evaluate the effects of supplementing diets with garlic powder and alpha-tocopherol on performance, serum cholesterol levels, and meat quality of chickens. Three hundred 1-d-old male broiler chicks were assigned to 5 diet treatments (0, 1, 3, and 5% garlic powder and 3% garlic powder + 200 IU of alpha-tocopherol/kg) with 3 replications of 20 birds for 35 d. There were no significant differences in broiler performance among the treatments. Moisture and crude ash contents of chicken thigh muscle were not different among all treatments, but dietary garlic powder and alpha-tocopherol supplementation resulted in significantly higher CP and lower crude fat contents in comparison with control (P < 0.05). Increasing the levels of garlic powder and applying garlic powder plus alpha-tocopherol significantly decreased total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and increased high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in broiler blood (P < 0.05). The pH and TBA reactive substances values were significantly reduced (P < 0.05) by the inclusion of garlic powder and alpha-tocopherol. However, no significant differences in water-holding capacity or shear force values were observed among the treatments. For broiler thigh muscle color, L* (lightness) values were decreased (P < 0.05), and a* (redness) and b* (yellowness) values were increased (P < 0.05) with the increased garlic powder levels and the combination of garlic powder and alpha-tocopherol. In terms of fatty acid composition in thigh muscle, unlike saturated fatty acid and total saturated fatty acid, dietary garlic powder or garlic powder plus alpha-tocopherol supplementation increased unsaturated fatty acid, total unsaturated fatty acid, and total unsaturated fatty acid:total saturated fatty acid ratios. These results suggest that 5% garlic powder or 3% garlic powder plus 200 IU of alpha-tocopherol antioxidant properties were effective for enhancing lipid and color stability.

In the present study, the effects of long-term exogenous glucocorticoids administration and dietary supplementation of alpha-tocopheryl acetate on the induction of lipid peroxidation in skeletal muscle were investigated. Male broiler chicks were randomly assigned to 2 diet treatments: the basal diet supplemented with 20 (low level of vitamin E) or 200 (high level of vitamin E) mg of vitamin E (as DL-alpha-tocopheryl acetate)/kg of diet. At 35 d of age, the chickens in each dietary treatment were randomly divided into 3 groups of 30 chickens and subjected to the following treatments: daily s.c. injection of dexamethasone (DEX, 2 mg/kg of BW) for 6 d, sham injection of saline (control), or the sham-treated pair-fed control that maintained the same feed intake as DEX treatment (pair-control). The results showed that the growth of chickens was suppressed by DEX, whereas it was improved by the high level of vitamin E treatment. The DEX treatment resulted in augmented plasma concentrations of TBA reacting substances. Muscle TBA reacting substances levels were higher in DEX chickens at both 24- and 48-h time points postslaughter. Vitamin E supplementation suppressed the formation of lipid peroxidation in both plasma and skeletal muscle tissues. Muscle activity of superoxide dismutase was significantly increased by DEX treatment in both musculus pectoralis major and musculus biceps femoris and maintained as such during the initial 48 h postmortem. The result of the present study indicated that DEX treatment increased the saturation level of skeletal muscle fatty acids. These results suggest that vitamin E supplementation was favorable for the performance of broiler chickens by alleviating the oxidative stress induced by DEX treatment.

The objective of this study was to compare the effect of 2 esters of alpha-tocopherol, all-rac-alpha-tocopherol acetate and RRR-alpha-tocopherol succinate (d-alpha-TOS) on growth and immunity in broiler chicks. Three hundred twenty 1-d-old commercial Arbor Acres broilers were randomly distributed to 4 treatments, each of which had 8 pens of 10 chicks per pen. Birds in the control group were fed with the diets supplemented with 30 mg/kg of all-rac-alpha-tocopherol acetate or the basal diet with d-alpha-TOS supplementation at 10 mg/kg (TOS1 group), 30 mg/kg (TOS2 group), and 50 mg/ kg (TOS3 group), respectively, for 42 d. The results showed that there was no significant difference (P > 0.05) in BW gain, feed intake, or G:F among the treatments. Significant positive correlations existed between dietary supplemental alpha-TOS levels and plasma (R(2) = 0.9831, P < 0.01) or hepatic (R(2) = 0.9336, P < 0.05) alpha-tocopherol concentrations and a negative correlation with plasma (R(2) = 0.9487, P < 0.05) or hepatic (R(2) = -0.9901, P = 0.0518) malondialdehyde levels. The concentrations of serum glutathione (GSH) were highest at 50 mg/kg at 42 d of age (P < 0.05), and hepatic GSH was significantly higher at 30 and 50 mg/kg compared with the other groups. Marked enhancement of splenic T- and B-lymphocyte proliferation occurred in group TOS3 as compared with the other groups. The study suggests that the immunoenhancement effect observed in broilers fed additional d-alpha-TOS between 30 and 50 mg/kg might result from increased retention of alpha-tocopherol and reduction in lipid peroxidation, as evidenced by the decrease in malondialdehyde and the increase in GSH.

An experiment was designed to assess the effect of dietary unsaturated fat inclusion level on alpha-tocopherol apparent absorption and deposition in broiler chickens at 2 ages (20 and 39 d). The dietary fat was a mixture of linseed and fish oil, rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). The experimental treatments were the result of 4 levels of supplementation with alpha-tocopheryl acetate (0, 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg; E0, E100, E200, and E400 treatments, respectively) and 4 dietary oil inclusion levels (2, 4, 6, and 8%; O2, O4, O6, and O8 treatments respectively). Almond husk was used as an energy dilutor in the high-fat diets. Apparent absorption of total fatty acids was high in all treatments averaging 88% and was higher with high fat dietary inclusion level. alpha-Tocopheryl acetate hydrolysis and apparent absorption of alpha-tocopherol were similar in both ages and were not affected by fat inclusion level, except for a reduction of the absorption in the low-fat diet (O2) in the E100 treatment at 20 d of age. Despite this lack of differences in hydrolysis and absorption, higher-fat PUFA diets induced lower concentrations of free alpha-tocopherol in the excreta, at high alpha-tocopherol doses, suggesting an increase in the destruction of alpha-tocopherol by lipid oxidation in the gastrointestinal tract. Similarly, total and hepatic alpha-tocopherol deposition was lower in the birds fed high-PUFA diets in the E200- and E400-supplemented birds, possibly due to a destruction of vitamin E when protecting these PUFA from lipid peroxidation. alpha-Tocopherol concentration in liver and, to a lesser extent, in plasma was a useful indicator of the degree of response of this vitamin to different factors that can affect its bioavailability; however, in the present experiment, CV were too high to use liver and plasma concentrations as estimators of total body vitamin E.

We examined the effects of vitamin E (VE) and Arg on the subpopulations of T lymphocytes in peripheral blood after an infectious bursal disease virus vaccination (20 d old, n = 54). Broiler chickens were fed diets with normal levels of Arg (NARG, 1.2%) or high levels of Arg (HARG, 2.2%) and 3 levels of VE (40, 80, or 200 IU/kg of feed) in a factorial arrangement of treatments. The percentages of CD4+ and CD8+ cells 9 d after vaccination were not different in birds fed the HARG or NARG feed, but they were higher in birds fed the VE80 diet than in birds fed the VE40 diet. Birds fed the VE200 feed had similar levels of CD4+ and CD8+ cells as birds fed the VE40 diet. However, 19 d after vaccination, the percentage of CD4+ cells was higher in birds fed the HARG (43.93 +/- 1.05) diet than in birds fed the NARG diet (41.14 +/- 1.05) and in birds fed the VE80 and VE200 (44.1 +/- 1.28 and 44.42 +/- 1.28, respectively) diets compared with birds fed the VE40 diet (39.04 +/- 1.28). On the other hand, the percentage of CD8+ cells was highest in birds fed the HARG-VE80 feed compared with all the other Arg and VE combinations. The percentages of CD3+ cells and BU-1+ cells were higher in birds fed the HARG (81.35 +/- 1.46 and 22.3 +/- 0.89, respectively) diet than in birds fed the NARG diets (77.82 +/- 1.46 and 18.93 +/- 0.89, respectively). Birds fed the VE40 had a higher amount of BU-1+ (24.35 +/- 1.073) but lower amounts of CD3+ cells (75.76 +/- 1.76) than birds fed the VE80 (18.46 +/- 1.073 and 81.67 +/- 1.76) and VE200 (19.03 +/- 1.073 and 81.19 +/- 1.76, respectively). Neither Arg nor VE had an effect on the CD4+:CD8+ cell ratio and on the percentage of immature (CD4+CD8+) T lymphocytes 9 d after vaccination. These results suggest that Arg and VE have complimentary effects on cellular and humoral immune function and may enhance the resistance of broilers to infectious diseases.

α-Tocopherol is the form of vitamin E with the highest biological value and is almost exclusively considered as vitamin E in feed and feed supplements. Because γ-tocopherol, the predominant form of vitamin E naturally present in chicken feed, is not considered as a source of vitamin E, its re-evaluation with newer methods might be important.Despite γ-tocopherol's lower estimated biological value, it has been shown to be effective in reducing reactive nitrogen species, regulating immune and inflammatory processes, and diminishing the risk of metabolic perturbations and associated diseases. A 30-day nutritional trial in broiler chickens (Ross 308) was conducted to investigate how specific forms of vitamin E (α- and γ-tocopherol) and their combination impact liver gene expression when oxidative susceptibility of the organism is induced by high n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) intake (linseed oil). Thirty-six one-day-old male broilers were fed a diet enriched with 5% linseed oil. A control group (Cont; N = 10) was used as a reference group, Tα (N = 10) was supplemented with 67 mg/kg RRR-α-tocopherol, Tγ (N = 8) with 67 mg/kg RRR-γ-tocopherol, and Tαγ (N = 8) with a combination of 33.5 mg/kg of each tocopherol. Beside oxidative stress indicators, whole chicken genome microarray analysis was performed on liver RNA and selected differentially expressed genes were confirmed by real time quantitative PCR. α-Tocopherol alone and in combination with γ-tocopherol was able to prevent lipid oxidation, which was also supported by transcriptome analysis. The effect of γ-tocopherol was evident in the expression of genes involved in inflammatory processes and immune response, while α-tocopherol affected genes involved in lipid and cholesterol metabolism. Both isomers of vitamin E influenced the transcription of genes, which are related to improved fat oxidation and enhanced glucose sparing.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of different dietary levels of zinc (Zn) and α-tocopheryl acetate (α-TOA) on broilers performance, meat quality, Zn, selenium (Se), and α-tocopherol (α-TO) tissue depositions. A total of 1,080 one-day-old Ross 308 broiler chickens (mixed-sex) were allocated to nine dietary treatments. Three levels of supplemental Zn (0, 60, and 120 mg/kg of diet) and three levels of α-TOA (0, 150, and 300 mg/kg of diet) were combined as a completely randomized design with 3 × 3 factorial arrangement. Chicks were penned in groups of 20 with six pens per treatment. The ADFI, ADG, feed conversion ratio (FCR), mortality rate, and European production efficiency factor (EPEF) were not affected by dietary treatments. In addition, supplementation of Zn and α-TOA and their interaction did not affect carcass parts yield. Drip loss of the breast and thigh muscles were significantly reduced 1.27 and 1.47% by α-tocopheryl acetate (α-TOA) supplementation, respectively (P 0.01). Deposition of Zn in liver, breast, and thigh muscles were linearly increased by dietary Zn supplementation. Furthermore, supplementation of Zn increased Se content in the breast and thigh muscles and liver. Supplementation of either α-TOA or Zn increased deposition of α-TO in liver and the muscles. The Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) values in the breast and thigh muscles and the liver were diminished by supplementation of α-TOA (P = 0.0001) and there was positive interaction between Zn and α-TOA (P 0.01), in which within each increase in Zn supplementation level, α-TOA supplementation resulted in a reduction of TBARS values. In conclusion, 300 mg/kg dietary supplementation of α-TOA could improve drip loss, nutritional content, and oxidation stability of muscle without any adverse effect on growth performance of chickens. In addition, 120 mg/kg dietary supplementation of Zn could fortify α-TOA effect to improve oxidation stability of the breast and thigh muscles as well as it resulted to higher muscles Zn enrichment.

The impact of supplementing laying-hen feed with annatto tocotrienols (T3s) and alpha-tocopherol on the distribution of various forms of vitamin E and cholesterol throughout the hen's body was evaluated. A total of 18 organs or tissues (skin, fat pad, liver and gall bladder, heart, oviduct, forming yolk, laid yolk, lungs, spleen, kidney, pancreas, gizzard, digestive tract, brain, thigh, breast, manure, and blood) were collected after 7 wk of feeding on diets enriched with various levels of alpha-tocopherol and annatto extract that contained gamma-T3 and delta-T3. Tissue weights, contents of lipid, alpha-tocopherol, gamma-T3, delta-T3, cholesterol, and fatty acid composition of extracted lipids from the collected organs and tissues were determined. Tissue weight and lipid content did not change significantly with feed supplementation treatments, except that the liver became heavier with increased levels of supplementation. Overall, the main organs that accumulated the supplemented vitamin E were fat pad, liver and gall bladder, oviduct, forming yolks, laid yolks, kidney, brain, thigh, and breast. Much of annatto gamma-T3 and delta-T3 (> 90%) was found in the manure, indicating poor uptake. In some tissues (brain and oviduct,) a significant increase in polyunsaturated fatty acids was seen with increased supplementation. Alpha-tocopherol impacted the transfer of gamma-T3 to forming and laid yolks, but did not impact delta-T3 transfer. No significant differences were found in most of the tissues in cholesterol, except a reduction in heart, based on tissue as-is. Blood samples showed large variations in individual hens with no significant differences in total and HDL cholesterol, or total triacylglycerols. Supplementing feed with annatto T3s and alpha-tocopherol showed that the vitamin E profile and distribution of the laying-hen body can be altered, but to different extents depending on tissue. The result of this research has significance in enhancing meat nutrient content.

Oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids leads to primary and secondary oxidation products. Compounds and amounts of these products vary, depending on the oxidative conditions. Because these oxidation products have different absorption and biological effects, we performed 2 different heating treatments on sunflower oil. The first was heating the oil at 190 to 195 degrees C for 28 h (i.e., very oxidized oil), and the other was heating at 60 degrees C for 12 d (i.e., peroxidized oil). In the frame of this study, we compared the fatty acid composition of a refined sunflower oil (fresh oil), peroxidized oil, very oxidized oil, and a mixture (1:1) of fresh and very oxidized oil (i.e., oxidized oil). Oil fatty acid compositions were affected by the heating treatments. In addition, different fatty acid isomers were formed during heating at 190 to 195 degrees C, and significant differences were found between their contents in the sunflower oils. We also studied the effect of feeding broilers with these oils and Zn and tocopherol supplements on the fatty acid composition of their raw dark meat. Various trans fatty acid isomers increased in dark meat from broilers fed oxidized and very oxidized oils. In addition, discriminant analysis showed that ditrans-conjugated linoleic acid content was able to distinguish dark chicken meat from chickens fed sunflower oils heated at 190 to 195 degrees C.

Relationships among quality factors in retailed free-range, corn-fed, organic, and conventional chicken breasts (9) were modeled using chemometric approaches. Use of principal component analysis (PCA) to neutral lipid composition data explained the majority (93%) of variability (variance) in fatty acid contents in 2 significant multivariate factors. PCA explained 88 and 75% variance in 3 factors for, respectively, flame ionization detection (FID) and nitrogen phosphorus (NPD) components in chromatographic flavor data from cooked chicken after simultaneous distillation extraction. Relationships to tissue antioxidant contents were modeled. Partial least square regression (PLS2), interrelating total data matrices, provided no useful models. By using single antioxidants as Y variables in PLS (1), good models (r2 values > 0.9) were obtained for alpha-tocopherol, glutathione, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and reductase and FID flavor components and among the variables total mono and polyunsaturated fatty acids and subsets of FID, and saturated fatty acid and NPD components. Alpha-tocopherol had a modest (r2 = 0.63) relationship with neutral lipid n-3 fatty acid content. Such factors thus relate to flavor development and quality in chicken breast meat.

Mechanically deboned turkey meat (MDTM) was stored in different packaging materials (film produced with natural antioxidant (alpha-tocopherol) or synthetic antioxidant) at -20 degrees C for 12 mo in a vacuum, modified atmosphere, or air. One-half of the samples were thawed at 4 degrees C for 24 h after 1 mo of storage and then refrozen. Oxidative rancidity was evaluated during storage by measuring the development of 2-thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), and hexanal, a volatile oxidation product. Vacuum- and modified atmosphere-packaged samples had lower TBARS values and hexanal content than air-packaged samples with corresponding treatments. Hexanal content and TBARS values increased with storage time, and the highest levels were obtained after 6 mo of storage. The largest increase was obtained with presence of oxygen. Mechanically deboned turkey meat stored in packages where a natural antioxidant (alpha-tocopherol) was used in production of one of the PE layers, had, in almost every instance, the lowest TBARS values and hexanal content when stored in vacuum or modified atmosphere. However, this difference was not statistically significant. Neither TBARS values nor hexanal content showed dependency of the temperature profile (frozen or frozen/thawed/refrozen) during storage.

One hundred ninety-two female broiler chickens were randomly distributed into 16 experimental treatments as a result of the combination of 4 levels of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) (15, 34, 45, and 61 g/kg) and 4 levels of supplementation with alphatocopheryl acetate (alpha-TA) (0, 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg), to determine the modification of the amount and type of fatty acids (FA) deposited in raw and cooked chicken tissues. At 44 d, quantified FA of thighs and breasts were not affected by dietary supplementation with alpha-TA. Total FA content of breast was less than 15% of the total FA content of thigh. However, increasing the PUFA content of the diet by 46 g, from 15 to 61 g/kg, decreased total FA of thigh 17%, but did not affect FA content in breast meat. Monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) and saturated fatty acid (SFA) content of thigh (y) decreased linearly as the inclusion of dietary PUFA (x) increased (MUFA: y = 89.34 - 0.92x, R2 = 0.70; SFA: y = 53.81 - 0.43x, R2 = 0.57), whereas the relationship between PUFA content of feed (x) and thighs (y) was exponential (y = 92.03 92.03e(-00155x), R2 = 0.75). A similar response was observed in breast, with less variation and more incorporation of PUFA than thigh. Cooking of thigh meat led to a reduction in total FA content that affected SFA, MUFA, and PUFA in a similar proportion.

The current study was designed to determine if dietary vitamin E influenced either the gut clearance or levels of peripheral blood CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes in adult turkeys experimentally infected with Listeria monocytogenes. Turkeys were fed vitamin E (0, 100, or 200 IU) from day of hatch to time of necropsy. After 6 wk on the experimental diet, turkeys were orally inoculated with L. monocytogenes (approximately 10(9) cfu). To monitor infection status, cloacal swabs were taken on selected days post-inoculation (DPI). At necropsy, samples of viscera, including liver, spleen, cecum, duodenum, ileum, and colon were collected and cultured for L. monocytogenes. In experiments 1 and 2, recovery of L. monocytogenes from cloacal swabs, tissues, and intestines from turkeys fed vitamin E was generally lower than that from turkeys fed the control diet, although these differences were not statistically significant. When data from both trials were combined, L. monocytogenes was cultured less frequently from cloacal swabs of the vitamin E-treated group (200 IU) on 2 and 3 DPI, when compared to controls (0 IU, P < 0.01). There were no changes in virulence characteristics of L. monocytogenes cells, as measured by in vitro killing of Ped-2E9 cells, recovered from cloacal swabs or tissues of experimentally infected turkeys fed the control or a vitamin E treatment diet. Flow cytometric analysis indicated that CD4+ and CD8+ peripheral blood T lymphocytes were elevated at 6 and 8 DPI in infected turkeys given 200 IU vitamin E.

The objective of the present study was to evaluate the pattern of accumulation of alpha-tocopherol (alpha-Toc) in egg as a response to dietary supplementation with 200 mg/kg diet of alpha-tocopheryl acetate (alpha-TA) and whether the inclusion of dietary oils with different fatty acid (FA) composition affected this parameter. Forty hens were randomly distributed into two treatments resulting from the supplementation of a basal diet containing 200 mg/kg alpha-TA with either 5% linseed oil (LO) or sunflower oil (SO). alpha-Tocopherol concentration of eggs was measured at 0, 4, 9, 14, 19, and 50 d after inclusion of the experimental diets. Results show that alpha-Toc concentration in the egg increased after the 4th d of feeding, reaching its maximum level at 14 d (168 microg/g egg), after which it decreased 10 to 12% until 19 d, obtaining similar values at 50 d (145 microg/g egg). No differences were observed between dietary oils in the deposition pattern of alpha-Toc in the egg.

Supplementation of hen diets with vitamin E was investigated as a means to alleviate egg quality deterioration associated with high temperature exposure. One hundred eighty layers (60 birds/diet) were randomly placed on diets supplemented with vitamin E at 20, 60, and 120 IU/kg feed. After 2 wk on feed, one-half of the birds were maintained at environmental temperatures of 21 C, whereas the other half were acclimated over 3 d to increasing environmental temperatures reaching 34 C. Birds were exposed to 21 or 34 C for 2 wk (five hens per cage x six replications). Egg production, feed intake, and egg weights were determined daily. Twenty eggs were collected from each treatment group and analyzed for vitamin E content in yolk, percentage egg solids, yolk color, yolk pH, albumen pH, foaming ability of albumen proteins, emulsification capacity of yolk, yolk viscosity, yolk color, and vitelline membrane strength (VMS). Results suggested that high temperature exposure (HTE) caused a reduction in feed intake, egg production, Haugh units, egg weights, VMS, yolk and albumen solids, foam stability, angel cake volume, yolk color, and emulsification capacity. Supplementation of HTE hen diets with 60 IU vitamin E/kg feed improved feed intake, egg production, VMS, yolk and albumen solids, foam stability, and angel cake volume. However, egg weight, emulsification capacity, yolk color, yolk index, and yolk viscosity were not improved by vitamin E supplementation of HTE hens. Vitamin E levels in the yolk were lower from HTE hens compared with controls at all levels of vitamin E supplementation.

We studied the influence of dietary fat source and dl-alpha-tocopheryl acetate and ascorbic acid supplementation on the sensory quality of cooked dark chicken meat stored at -20 C for different periods. Results showed that dietary fat source and alpha-tocopheryl acetate supplementation influenced sensory scores (rancid flavor and aroma and acceptability). Ascorbic acid had no influence on these scores. Thiobarbituric acid values showed a high correlation with sensory scores. In addition, the low levels of alpha-tocopheryl acetate contained in the trace mineral-vitamin mix (20 IU/kg of feed) were enough to prevent rancidity development in cooked dark chicken meat when broilers were fed a saturated fat diet and samples were vacuum-packed and stored at -20 C for 13 mo.

The antioxidant effect of dietary supplementation with 500 or 1,000 mg/kg of a commercial rosemary extract vs. 200 mg/kg of alpha-tocopheryl acetate (alpha-TA) on the lipid oxidative stability of omega3-fatty acid (FA)-enriched eggs was compared. Lipid oxidation was measured in fresh eggs by the lipid hydroperoxide level and malonaldehyde content. Stability to iron-induced lipid oxidation was also measured. Results showed the clear antioxidant effect of dietary alpha-TA supplementation on omega3-FA enriched eggs. In contrast, dietary supplementation with rosemary extract showed no effect on any of the lipid oxidation parameters evaluated.

The beneficial health-promoting effects of the long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) of the n-3 series make them important constituents of human and animal diets. The effects of tuna oil or a combination of tuna oil with an increased level of vitamin E on the fatty acid profile and vitamin E distribution in tissues taken from cockerels were studied. Male chickens (Ross broiler breeders), penned on white wood shavings, were allocated into one of three groups with 12 birds per group and were fed from 10 wk of age on a commercial diet supplemented with 3% corn oil (control) or with 3% Tuna orbital oil (TO). Vitamin E was added at the rate of 40 mg/ kg, except in the third group in which the birds received a diet containing TO (3%) supplemented with 160 mg/kg vitamin E (TO+E). At 72 wk of age, the cockerels were killed, and tissues (liver, testes, heart, lung, kidney, spleen, thigh muscle, pancreas, internal fat, cerebellum, and cerebrum) were dissected for lipid and vitamin E analyses. Inclusion of TO in the cockerel diets significantly (P0.01) increased docosahexanoic acid (DHA) proportions in the major lipid fractions of the tissues with the brain being more resistant to lipid manipulation compared with the other tissues. Tissue enrichment with DHA took place at the expense of a decrease of n-6 PUFA. In the DHA-enriched tissues, vitamin E level decreased (P0.05), and susceptibility to peroxidation (TBARS accumulation) significantly (P0.01) increased. High vitamin E supplementation (160 mg/kg) in combination with TO prevented decrease of alpha-tocopherol concentration in the tissues and normalized or even increased their resistance to lipid peroxidation. There was tissue-specificity in response to dietary vitamin E supplementation; the liver was most responsive and the cerebellum was most resistant to vitamin E manipulation.

A study was conducted to determine the effects of dietary vitamin E supplementation on the storage stability and volatiles production in irradiated cooked turkey meat. Turkeys, raised with diets containing 25, 50, 75, or 100 IU of dl-alpha-tocopheryl acetate (TA)/kg diet from 1 to 105 d of age, were fed with diets containing 25, 200, 400, or 600 IU of TA/kg diet from 105 to 122 d of age. Breast and leg meat patties were prepared, irradiated at 0 or 2.5 kGy dose, cooked to an internal temperature of 78 C, and stored in either vacuum or aerobic packaging. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS) values gradually decreased as the dietary TA increased and > 200 IU TA/kg diet treatments were helpful in maintaining low TBARS values in irradiated breast and leg meat patties during the 7-d storage period. With vacuum-packaging, irradiated cooked breast patties developed more oxidation than nonirradiated patties but the prooxidant effect of irradiation in cooked leg meat patties was not consistent. In aerobic-packaged cooked meat, irradiated patties had lower TBARS than nonirradiated patties in both breast and leg meat stored in oxygen permeable bags for 7 d. Propanal, pentanal, hexanal, 1-pentanol, and total volatiles were highly correlated with the TBARS values of meat. However, hexanal represented the lipid oxidation status of cooked meat better than any other volatiles component. The amount of hexanal and total volatiles in cooked breast and leg meat shows decreasing trends as dietary TA increased. In vacuum packaging, irradiated breast and leg meat had higher hexanal and total volatiles content than nonirradiated meat at both 0 and 7 d of storage. In aerobic packaging, the amount of hexanal and total volatiles greatly increased in both irradiated and nonirradiated meat patties during the 7-d storage periods. The results illustrated that the antioxidant effect of TA was not strong enough to control lipid oxidation and off-odor generation in cooked meat stored under aerobic conditions because the progress of lipid oxidation in cooked meat under aerobic condition is very rapid. However, the combination of dietary TA and vacuum packaging of cooked meat immediately after cooking could be a good strategy to minimize oxidation and volatiles production in cooked meat.

The objective of the present study was to investigate the effect of vitamin E on laying performance, egg quality, egg fatty acid composition, antioxidant capacity, and several biochemical parameters of laying hens fed corn distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) during the laying period (40 to 63 wk of age). A total of 360 Hy-Line Variety Brown hens were randomly assigned to 6 groups, consisting of 6 replicates with 10 hens each. Hens were allocated to diets 1 through 6 in a 3 × 2 factorial design. The dietary treatments included 3 levels of DDGS (0, 10, and 20%) and 2 levels of vitamin E (0 and 200 mg/kg). The results indicated that yolk color and eggshell thickness increased with increasing DDGS (P < 0.05). However, increasing DDGS to 20% in laying hen diets significantly reduced feed conversion (P < 0.05). Supplementation with 200 mg/kg of vitamin E significantly improved egg production and yolk percentage (P < 0.05). Increasing the dietary levels of vitamin E caused a decrease in cholesterol and an increase in the α-tocopherol concentration of the egg yolk and serum (P < 0.05). Diets supplemented with DDGS decreased the proportion of saturated fatty acids (P < 0.05) and increased the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids in egg yolk (P < 0.05). Supplementation with high levels of vitamin E decreased malondialdehyde and increased glutathione peroxidase and total superoxide dismutase concentrations of the egg yolk and serum (P < 0.05). In conclusion, our results showed that DDGS was successfully fed to laying hens at levels up to 10% without adverse effects on laying performance. Additionally, vitamin E supplementation improved egg production and egg quality and provided health benefits to laying hens.

A total of 300 female broiler chickens were reared from day-old to 10 d of age on the same starter diet. Then they were divided into five groups, receiving a control diet (Group 1) relatively rich in fat (14.3%) and unsaturated fatty acids (87.6%) and standardized with respect to vitamins and minerals, supplemented with 100 mg (Group 2) and 500 mg (Group 4) of RRR-alpha-,gamma-,delta-tocopheryl acetate/kg feed (40.6% alpha-, 41.1% gamma-, 18.3% delta-) or 100 mg (Group 3) and 500 mg (Group 5) all-rac-alpha-tocopheryl acetate/kg feed until slaughter at 6 wk of age. No differences between the supplemented groups were observed with respect to weight gain, feed consumption, packed cell volume (PCV), plasma enzyme activities of creatine kinase (CK) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), fatty acid composition, and enzyme activities of citrate synthase (CS), and total lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and 3-OH-acyl-coenzyme A-dehydrogenase (HAD) of breast (Pectoralis major) and thigh (Gastrocnemius interna) muscle. Increasing levels of alpha-, gamma-, and delta-tocopherol were found in blood plasma with increasing dietary levels of these tocopherols. Only alpha-tocopherol was detectable in skeletal muscle and in higher concentrations in thigh than in breast muscle. Hemolysis in vitro and plasma activity of aspartate aminotransferase (ASAT) were lower (P < .01) in Groups 2 and 4 than in Groups 3 and 5. Interactions were observed between dietary type and concentration of tocopherols for plasma CK, GSH-Px, Na+, and K+. No measurable excretion of ethane and pentane was observed in any of the groups. The findings indicate that the oxidative stress in the live animals was minimal. The mixture of natural source RRR-alpha-,gamma-,delta-tocopherols was as efficient in protecting the live chickens as the all-rac-alpha-tocopheryl acetate, when provided on a weight basis as judged from the chosen in vivo parameters of vitamin E status.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the characteristics of lipid oxidation in the meat of free-range broilers feeding on grasshoppers in alpine rangeland on the Tibetan Plateau. Eighty 28-d-old Qinjiaoma male broilers were introduced into a rangeland where there was a dense population of grasshoppers (PB). Control birds were reared under intensive conditions and given a maize-soybean diet. At 91 d of age, 24 birds from each treatment were slaughtered. Fresh breast and thigh meats were packaged and refrigerated for determination. The results indicate that rearing conditions, which included a diet rich in grasshoppers for PB broilers, significantly (P0.05) affected α-tocopherol content, total iron, heme iron, and nonheme iron content in the muscle of both the breast and leg. Rearing system and diet also had an important effect on antioxidant activity and lipid oxidation during refrigerated storage. This influence changed with storage time between different tissues. The activities of glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase in the muscle of chicken breasts or legs from PB broilers were significantly (P0.05) higher than those from the controls, but no significant (P0.05) differences were found for the activities of catalase between the PB broilers and the controls. In conclusion, the meat in free-range broilers feeding on grasshoppers has more antioxidative potential and longer storage life.

An experiment was conducted to determine the effects of level and chemical form of dietary vitamin E on alpha-tocopherol status of poults. The effects of a dietary bile salt and an antioxidant on concentrations of alpha-tocopherol in serum and liver were also tested. Six dietary treatments were obtained by supplementing a corn-soybean meal diet with 12 IU of DL-alpha-tocopheryl acetate (TA)/kg (LE), 12 IU of TA plus 800 mg of sodium taurocholate/kg (LB), 12 IU of TA plus 500 mg of ethoxyquin/kg (LS), 12 IU of D-alpha-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1,000 succinate (TPGS)/kg (LT), 100 IU of TA/kg (HE), and 100 IU of TPGS/kg (HT). Growth rate and feed efficiency of poults were unaffected (P.05) by dietary treatments. The HE diet increased alpha-tocopherol in liver (P.01) at 14 and 21 days of age. Liver and serum alpha-tocopherol concentrations were unaffected by dietary TPGS (LT and HT diets) at any age. Serum alpha-tocopherol concentration was unaffected by dietary treatments at 5 days of age. The HE diet, however, increased (P.01) serum alpha-tocopherol at 9, 14, and 21 days of age. Age-related changes in alpha-tocopherol concentration were observed. Both liver and serum alpha-tocopherol decreased markedly from 1 to 14 days of age. The HE diet only partly alleviated the reduction of alpha-tocopherol in liver and serum. The water-soluble form of vitamin E, TPGS, dietary sodium taurocholate, or dietary ethoxyquin, did not prevent the marked decline in alpha-tocopherol concentration of liver and serum during the 21-day experiment.

Camelina sativa is an oilseed crop of the Brassica (Cruciferae) family that has gained increased popularity as a biofuel source. The present study was conducted to investigate the effects of feeding C. sativa meal to broiler birds on phenolic compounds, tocopherols, flavonoids, antioxidant capacity, and lipid peroxidation in chicken thigh meat during short (4°C for 2 or 7 d) or long-term (-20°C for 90 d) storage and cooking. One hundred sixty 1-d-old Cobb chicks were fed a corn-soybean meal-based diet with added Camelina meal at 0% (control), 2.5% (CAM2.5), 5% (CAM5), and 10% (CAM10). The experimental diets were fed for a period of 42 d. Feeding Camelina meal at 5 or 10% led to a 1.6-fold increase in γ-tocopherols in the thigh meat when compared with control birds (P0.05). No effect of diet on γ-tocopherols in the breast meat and α-tocopherols in the thigh and breast meat was observed (P0.05). Antioxidant activity measured as 2,2-azino-bis [3-ethylbenzo-thiazoline-6-sulfonic acid] radical scavenging capacity in the thigh meat from CAM2.5, CAM5, and CAM10 was higher than control birds (P0.05). In the breast meat, 2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzo-thiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) diammonium salt radical scavenging capacity was highest in CAM10 (P0.05). Feeding Camelina meal at 5 or 10% led to reductions in thigh TBA reactive substances (TBARS) during short-term (2 d) and long-term storage (P0.05). The TBARS of thigh meat from CAM5 and CAM10 were reduced up to 49 or 36% during 2- or 90-d storage, respectively, when compared with control (P0.05). However, no effect of diet on thigh meat TBARS at 7 d of storage was observed among treatment groups. Overall, TBARS were highest in the thigh meat from control and CAM2.5 birds (P0.05). Upon cooking, TBARS were lowest in thigh meat from CAM10 birds, which was over 48% lower than in meat from birds fed the control diet (P0.05). The current study showed that Camelina meal could be effective in inhibiting lipid oxidation and enhancing antioxidant capacity. However, the effect was more prominent in the thigh than breast meat.

There is an increasing demand in precooked chicken meat products for restaurants and catering services. Because cooked chicken meat develops lipid oxidation relatively fast, sous vide chicken meat was studied to assess its shelf-life. Six hundred Cobb x Ross broilers were fed for 6 wk with a basal corn-soybean meal diet including soybean, palm kernel, or animal-vegetable oil, each supplemented with 33 or 200 mg/kg of dl-alpha-tocopheryl acetate. Broilers were randomly assigned into 6 treatments and 4 repetitions with 25 birds each. Boneless breast or thigh muscle pieces were dissected into 5 x 5 x 5 cm cubes, vacuum-packed, cooked in water bath (until 74 degrees C internal temperature), chilled, and stored at 4 degrees C for 1, 5, 10, 25, and 40 d. For each storage day, each pouch contained 3 pieces of meat, either breast or thigh. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances analysis, to quantify malonaldehyde (MDA) values, was conducted to estimate the lipid oxidation development. Nonheme iron values of cooked meat were analyzed. Fatty acid methyl esters analysis was performed in chicken muscle to determine its fatty acid composition. There was no interaction between dietary fat and vitamin E level in all of the variables studied except in nonheme iron. Dietary fat significantly influenced the fatty acid composition of the muscle (P < 0.01), but it did not affect the MDA values, regardless of differences in the muscle fatty acid composition between treatments. Supplementation of the high level of vitamin E significantly reduced the MDA values in both breast and thigh meat (P < 0.01). The maximum MDA values were observed at d 40 of storage in thigh and breast meat in animal-vegetable and soybean oil treatments with the low levels of vitamin E, 0.91 and 0.70 mg/kg, respectively. Nonheme iron values in thigh meat differed between treatments at 1 or 25 d of storage but not in breast meat. In conclusion, refrigerated sous vide chicken meat has a prolonged shelf-life, which is enhanced by dietary supranutritional supplementation of vitamin E.

A factorial design was used to study the effects of dietary fat sources (beef tallow, fresh and oxidized sunflower oils, and linseed oil), alpha-tocopheryl acetate (0 and 225 mg/kg), and ascorbic acid (0 and 110 mg/ kg) supplementation on fatty acid composition, as well as on fat and alpha-tocopherol content in vacuum-packed raw and cooked meat stored at -20 degrees C. Raw meat fatty acid composition was affected by dietary fat sources and tocopheryl acetate supplementation. After cooking, meat composition was only affected by dietary fat sources. Birds fed linseed oil yielded meat rich in n-3 fatty acids, especially linolenic acid, which provides about 20% of the adequate intake for this fatty acid. Birds fed sunflower or oxidized sunflower oil produced meat rich in n-6 fatty acids, whereas those fed beef tallow resulted in meat rich in saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids. Raw and cooked dark chicken meat alpha-tocopherol content was only affected by tocopherol supplementation. Supplementation with alpha-tocopheryl acetate led to alpha-tocopherol-enriched meat, which provides about 25% of the recommended dietary allowance. Moreover, this content in vacuum-packed samples was not modified even after 7 mo of storage at -20 degrees C.

A factorial design was used to study the effect of dietary fish oil (1.25% and 2.5%), all-rac-alpha-tocopheryl acetate (70 and 140 mg/kg), and Zn supplementation (0 and 200 mg/kg) on the composition and consumer acceptability of chicken meat stored at -20 degrees C for 5 mo. Supplementation of the diet with all-rac-alpha-tocopheryl acetate increased the alpha-tocopherol content in meat. The fatty acid composition of the meat was affected only by the amount of fish oil. Diets supplied with 2.5% fish oil produced meat with an eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acid content double that of diets supplied with 1.25% fish oil. Zn supplementation did not affect the content of this mineral in the meat. Moreover, the consumer acceptability of meat samples showed no significant differences between dietary treatments after 5 mo of storage at -20 degrees C or with respect to a freshly cooked commercial sample used as a blind control.

Previously, we found that 25 to 50 IU/kg of dietary vitamin E (VE) had very different immunoregulatory effects than high VE levels (200 IU/kg), and we hypothesized that this difference was due to different cytokine profiles. Chicks were fed 0, 30, or 200 IU/kg supplemental VE and percentages of CD4+CD8-, CD4-CD8+, CD4+CD8+, and CD4-CD8- lymphocytes, and the ratio of CD4+/CD8+ lymphocytes was determined. The expression of chicken splenic interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta), myelomonocytic growth factor (MGF), interferon (IFN-gamma), and transforming growth factor-beta (TGFbeta) mRNA was determined by reverse transcription (RT)-PCR after intravenous injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Due to a tendency for increased CD4-CD8+ lymphocytes at 30 IU/kg VE (P=0.072), the CD4+/CD8+ ratio was significantly lower for 30 IU/kg VE compared with 0 IU/kg VE (P=0.041). The VE dose of 200 IU/kg decreased the constitutive (prior to LPS) expression of TGFbeta. The LPS caused an increase in IL-1beta, MGF, and IFNgamma expression at all VE concentrations and had no effect on IL-2 and TGFbeta mRNA expression. Dietary VE decreased MGF mRNA (P=0.049) in a dose-dependent manner but had no effect on the expression of other cytokines. The decreased expression of MGF could explain the immunomodulatory effect of VE in inflammation.

The effects of antioxidants and double packaging combinations on color, lipid oxidation, and volatiles production in irradiated raw and cooked turkey breast were determined. Ground meat was treated with antioxidants (none, sesamol + alpha-tocopherol, or gallate + alpha-tocopherol), and patties were prepared. The patties were packaged under vacuum, packaged aerobically, or double packaged (vacuum for 7 d then aerobic for 3 d) and electron beam irradiated at 3 kGy. Color, 2-thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS), and volatile profiles of the samples were determined at 0 and 10 d and after cooking. Irradiated vacuum-packaged patties had great amounts of sulfur volatiles (dimethyl sulfide and dimethyl disulfide) and increased red color during refrigerated storage and after cooking compared with the nonirradiated control. Irradiated aerobically packaged meat had accelerated lipid oxidation and aldehyde production at 10 d and after cooking. Gallate + alpha-tocopherol alone with double packaging was effective in reducing the red color of irradiated meat at 10 d and after cooking. Considerable amounts of off-odor volatiles were reduced by double packaging and antioxidant treatment. Sulfur volatiles were evaporated during the aerobic period of double packaging, and lipid oxidation was prevented by the antioxidants and vacuum condition of double packaging. These beneficial effects of double packaging and antioxidants were more critical in irradiated cooked meat. Therefore, the combined use of antioxidants and double packaging would be a useful method to control the oxidative quality changes of irradiated raw and cooked turkey breast.

In two trials, broiler chickens, processed similarly to those placed in commercial operation, were fed, from 1 d of age, a range (13 to 200 ppm) of DL-alpha-tocopheryl acetate (VE-AC) levels, and the effects on the pathology of Eimeria maxima infections were assessed at 6 d postinoculation (PI). In Trial 1, dietary levels of VE-AC had little significant effect on variables characterizing pathology except for the number of oocysts shed, which was significantly increased in chicks treated with higher VE-AC levels. The infection was judged to be mild based on moderate lesion scores (2.2 ± 0.2), lack of significant effects on weight gain (7 ± 1.6% decrease), moderate reduction in plasma carotenoids (21 ± 2%) and small increases in plasma NO2−+NO3− (141 ± 12%). In uninfected and infected chickens, plasma alpha-tocopherol (AT) increased with dietary levels of VE-AC; however, E. maxima infection caused a fairly constant decrease in AT of 35.3 ± 3.2% across these levels. Plasma γ-tocopherol (GT) levels were unaffected by dietary VE-AC or E. maxima infection. In Trial 2, pathology, again, was relatively unaffected by dietary VE-AC level. The infection was judged to be severe based on lesion scores (3.5 ± 0.1), reduction in weight gain (30.7 ± 3%), plasma carotenoids (72.4 ± 1.5%), uric acid (16.3 ± 3.4), albumin (37.8 ± 2.8%), large increases (261 ± 8%) in plasma NO2−+NO3−, and high numbers of oocysts shed per chick (4.12 ± 0.4 × 107). Plasma AT again increased with increasing dietary VE-AC levels in uninfected and infected chicks, but the mean decrease across VE-AC levels caused by E. maxima infection was 73.14 ± 3.3%. GT levels were erratic and unrelated to dietary VEAC or infection. Thus, in processed broiler chickens, high dietary VE-AC did not prevent or lessen the pathology caused by mild or severe infections with E. maxima. The main effect of E. maxima infection appeared to be reduction in plasma AT levels. We postulate that this reduction may be due to malabsorption of AT, which results from physical damage to the absorptive mucosa, reduction in esterases required to hydrolyze the VE-AC, and a generalized lipid malabsorption, preventing movement of the free AT to circulating blood and infected tissues.

Because of the proposed cardioprotective benefits of n-3 fatty acids and vitamin E, a trial was carried out to investigate the possibility of enriching eggs with n-3 fatty acid and vitamin E added to the hen's diet. One hundred ninety-two Hy-Line Brown hens, 39-wk-old, were divided into eight groups: four groups received the basal diet supplemented with 3% lard and four doses of dl-alpha-tocopheryl acetate (0, 50, 100, and 200 ppm), whereas the diets of the other groups were supplemented with 3% of fish oil and the same doses of vitamin E. The performances of the hens and egg weights were not affected either by the type of lipid supplement or by the vitamin level. The treatment with fish oil caused a dramatic increase (P < 0.01) of all n-3 fatty acids of the yolk, particularly EPA (19.53 vs. 0.74 mg/egg) and DHA (143.70 vs. 43.66 mg/egg), and an appreciable decrease of arachidonic acid (25.54 vs. 67.72 mg/egg). The different levels of dietary vitamin E slightly affected the fatty acid composition of the yolk. Yolk alpha-tocopherol increased linearly as dietary dl-alpha-tocopheryl acetate increased (P < 0.01) from the control level of 90.93 microg/g of yolk to 313.84 microg/g of yolk when 200 ppm were added to the hen diets. Twenty-eight days of storage at room temperature (20 to 25 C) did not alter the yolk fatty acid profile, and, moreover, the levels of vitamin E remained still very close to those observed in fresh egg.

The objective of this study was to determine whether two antioxidant vitamins, vitamins E and C, were able to counteract the production of lipid peroxides and the corresponding toxic signs of two important but diverse mycotoxins, T-2 toxin and ochratoxin A (OA). Experiment 1 was designed in a 3 x 3 factorial arrangement using three doses of vitamin E (dl-alpha-tocopheryl acetate) in the diet of Leghorn cockerels (required level according to NRC, 10x, and 100x requirements) and three toxin treatment [no toxin (Diets 1, 2, and 3), 4 mg T-2/kg of diet (Diets 4, 5, and 6), and 2.5 mg OA/kg of diet (Diets 7, 8, and 9)]. The experimental design for Experiment 2 was the same as for Experiment 1 except that Vitamin C (0, 200, and 1,000 mg/kg of diet) was used in place of vitamin E and the concentration of T-2 in Diets 4, 5, and 6 was increased to 5 mg/kg of diet. Six replicates were used per treatment with four birds per replicate. In both experiments, OA and T-2 decreased the performance of the chicks significantly. The concentration of uric acid in the plasma increased (P < 0.001) when OA was added to the diet, whereas the supplementation of the diet with vitamin E (100x the requirement) partially counteracted this effect (P = 0.07). The presence of T-2, and especially OA, in the diet decreased the concentration of alpha-tocopherol in the liver (P < 0.001). Consistent with these findings were increased values of malondialdehyde (MDA) in the liver due to OA. In Experiment 1, vitamin E supplementation partially ameliorated the prooxidative effects of OA by decreasing the concentrations of MDA (P < 0.05). These data suggest that lipid peroxides are formed in vivo by T-2 and especially by OA and that these effects can be partially counteracted by an antioxidant such as vitamin E but not by vitamin C.

Two experiments were conducted to determine the effect of dietary linoleic to linolenic acid (LO:LN) ratio and dl-alpha-tocopheryl acetate (TA) supplementation on selected characteristics of the liver and cerebellum and on vitamin E status of turkey poults from hatch through 22 d of age. In Experiment 1, 1-d-old poults were fed diets containing no supplemental TA (0E) or 150 IU TA/kg diet (150E). Poults fed the 150E diet had greater (P < 0.001) concentrations of alpha-tocopherol (TOC) in the liver and plasma than those fed the 0E diet from 7 to 22 d of age. The 150E diet, however, did not completely overcome the decrease in liver and plasma TOC concentrations observed at these ages. The 150E diet had no effect on poult BW, feed efficiency, or on the weight, protein, lipid, or fatty acid concentrations of the liver. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances assay of liver and hemolysis assay of red blood cells (RBC) showed that the 150E diet decreased the susceptibility of liver and RBC to in vitro peroxidation at 13 and 22 d of age. In Experiment 2, 1-d-old poults were fed the 0E and 150E diets in a complete factorial arrangement with decreasing ratios of LO:LN (10, 5, and 1). Dietary LO:LN ratio had no effect on RBC hemolysis or cerebellum TOC concentration. As the ratio of LO:LN decreased, the arachidonic acid content of liver and cerebellum lipids decreased. Ratios of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids in liver and cerebellum were directly related to dietary LO:LN at 13 and 22 d of age.

Oxidative stability of muscle from broilers fed 1) basal feed; 2) basal feed supplemented with 100 mg of a mixture of natural source RRR-alpha-,gamma-,delta-tocopheryl acetate/kg feed; 3) basal feed supplemented with 100 mg of synthetic all-rac-alpha-tocopheryl acetate/kg feed; 4) basal feed supplemented with 500 mg of a mixture of natural source RRR-alpha-,gamma-,delta-tocopheryl acetate/kg feed; or 5) basal feed supplemented with 500 mg of synthetic all-rac-alpha-tocopheryl acetate/kg feed, was evaluated during chill and freezer storage by determination of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS). The oxidative stability of precooked muscle was investigated in a chill storage experiment and in a model system with accelerated oxidation. The basal feed contained a standard added amount of 46 mg all-rac-alpha-tocopheryl acetate/kg feed. Furthermore, the basal feed had a high natural content of vitamin E, resulting in a dietary vitamin E level in the control feed of 72 mg alpha-tocopherol and 69 mg gamma-tocopherol, a level that provided a reasonable oxidative stability for the meat. In spite of this, raising the dietary vitamin E level resulted in improved oxidative stability of broiler muscle during storage. Supplementation of broiler feed with 100 mg all-rac-alpha-tocopheryl acetate/kg, resulting in a total alpha-tocopherol content of 198 mg/kg feed, was found to be sufficient to improve stability of precooked broiler breast and precooked thigh muscles during chill storage, and further to ensure stability of raw meat during chill and freezer storage. The mixture of natural source RRR-alpha-,gamma-,delta-tocopherol was less effective in protecting broiler muscles than the synthetic all-rac-alpha-tocopherol, when compared on a weight basis.

A total of 300 female broiler chickens were reared from day-old to 10 d of age on the same starter diet. Then they were divided into five groups, receiving a control diet (Group 1) relatively rich in fat (14.3%) and unsaturated fatty acids (87.6%) and standardized with respect to vitamins and minerals, supplemented with 100 mg (Group 2) and 500 mg (Group 4) of RRR-alpha-,gamma-,delta-tocopheryl acetate/kg feed (40.6% alpha-, 41.1% gamma-, 18.3% delta-) or 100 mg (Group 3) and 500 mg (Group 5) all-rac-alpha-tocopheryl acetate/kg feed until slaughter at 6 wk of age. No differences between the supplemented groups were observed with respect to weight gain, feed consumption, packed cell volume (PCV), plasma enzyme activities of creatine kinase (CK) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), fatty acid composition, and enzyme activities of citrate synthase (CS), and total lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and 3-OH-acyl-coenzyme A-dehydrogenase (HAD) of breast (Pectoralis major) and thigh (Gastrocnemius interna) muscle. Increasing levels of alpha-, gamma-, and delta-tocopherol were found in blood plasma with increasing dietary levels of these tocopherols. Only alpha-tocopherol was detectable in skeletal muscle and in higher concentrations in thigh than in breast muscle. Hemolysis in vitro and plasma activity of aspartate aminotransferase (ASAT) were lower (P.01) in Groups 2 and 4 than in Groups 3 and 5. Interactions were observed between dietary type and concentration of tocopherols for plasma CK, GSH-Px, Na+, and K+. No measurable excretion of ethane and pentane was observed in any of the groups. The findings indicate that the oxidative stress in the live animals was minimal. The mixture of natural source RRR-alpha-,gamma-,delta-tocopherols was as efficient in protecting the live chickens as the all-rac-alpha-tocopheryl acetate, when provided on a weight basis as judged from the chosen in vivo parameters of vitamin E status.

Three experiments were conducted with adult, male Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) from 5 through 14 weeks of age. In Experiment 1, quail fed a cholesterol-free diet were compared with quail fed .5% of United States Pharmacopoeias (USP), recrystallized (RCR), or oxidized (OXI) cholesterol preparations. In Experiment 2, .5% OXI cholesterol was fed alone and with .1% butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) or 100 mg d-alpha-tocopherol acetate/kg of diet and compared with .5% RCR cholesterol. Experiment 3 was the same as Experiment 2 except the BHT treatment was deleted. In comparison to RCR-treated quail, OXI-treated quail exhibited significantly increased serum (P less than .05) and liver (P less than .01) cholesterol concentrations and increased severity of atherosclerotic lesions (P less than .05). Addition of vitamin E to the OXI cholesterol diet appeared to reduce severity of atherosclerotic lesions. Vitamin E did not completely prevent atherosclerosis nor did it change the proportion of the quail population that exhibited lesions.

A DEFICIENCY of vitamin E in young chickens results in the development of either encephalomalacia, exudative diathesis, muscular dystrophy or a combination of the individual disorders. With appropriate dietary conditions, a single disease can be produced uncomplicated by the presence of the other deficiency symptoms (Nesheim and Scott, 1961). Thus, for the purpose of studying muscular dystrophy in the chick, the cystine and vitamin E deficient diets employed to produce the disorder normally have contained a low level of selenium to prevent exudative diathesis and a sufficiently low dietary level of linoleic acid to prevent onset of encephalomalacia (Nesheim et al., 1959; Hazzard and Leonard, 1961; Scott and Calvert, 1962). Although it is well known that dietary fat is not required for development of the dystrophic lesions (Dam et al., 1952; Machlin and Shalkop, 1956) investigators have commonly included 4% of vitamin E-stripped lard in the basal ration as a…

NUTRITIONAL encephalomalacia in chicks is attributed to the absence of α-tocopherol (AT) in chicks being fed a diet relatively rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids of the linoleic acid series (Machlin and Gordon, 1962). Adequate amounts of AT, or other biologically active antioxidants which are deposited in the tissues of the chick, can inhibit in vivo lipid peroxidation (Zalkin et al., 1960), and thus prevent the occurrence of the disease. The commercial rations for chicks, based on corn or sorghum, contain about 1.2% linoleic acid. The incorporation of waste vegetable oils (as customary in this country) raises this level markedly. Inadequate AT levels in chicks fed such a diet, be it as the result of low initial body reserves or due to low levels of dietary AT, could cause the onset of the disease. The development of the young chick in the early stages of its life depends to a great extent…

THE two clinical symptoms commonly used to characterize a vitamin E deficiency in chicks are exudative diathesis and encephalomalacia. They usually appear separately; however, under some conditions they appear concomitantly (Dam 1944). The term exudative diathesis characterizes a condition resulting from an accumulation of plasma in the subcutaneous tissues, muscles or connective tissue. The increased moisture content of brains from chicks showing symptoms of encephalomalacia suggests the possibility of exudation in brain tissue. Dam and Glavind (1942) and Bird (1943) reported that increasing the soluble salts in the chick’s diet increased the severity of the edema which developed on the vitamin E inadequate ration. It is doubtful if the vitamin E inadequate ration used by these workers provided enough of other essential nutrients for normal growth even when made adequate in vitamin E. Edema has been observed in animals receiving rations low in protein and essential minerals. Dam (1944) reported . . .

DAM et al. (1948, 1951) have shown that various antioxidants used in lieu of vitamin E in the diet will afford partial protection to the chick against exudative diathesis and encephalomalacia. Among the substances tested, they found that methylene blue (0.126% of the diet), thionine (0.089%), thiodiphenyl-amine (0.0675%), antabuse (0.025%), nordihydroguaiaretic acid (0.5%), and ascorbic acid (0.5%) afforded considerable, but not complete, protection against exudative diathesis. In the case of encephalomalacia, only methylene blue gave complete protection. Recent work of Singsen et al. (1955) has shown that the antioxidant N, N′-diphenyl-p-phenylenediamine (DPPD) was very effective in preventing encephalomalacia. Since DPPD appeared to offer excellent promise in the prevention of this disorder, it seemed advisable to test other antioxidants as to their ability to prevent encephalomalacia when added to the chick’s diet at reasonable levels. Singsen et al. (1955) have shown that the primary protective action of DPPD is in the …

A NUMBER of substances including methylene blue, ascorbic acid, and nordihydroguaiaretic acid, have been reported by Dam et al. (1948, 1951) to afford partial protection against certain vitamin E deficiency symptoms. Complete protection was given when 0.01 percent (45.4 mg./lb. of diet) of dl-alpha-tocopheryl acetate was added to the diet. When their diet was supplemented with 0.5 percent ascorbic acid, the storage of tocopherol in fat tissue was 110 micrograms per gram of fat whereas storage in chicks fed the basal ration was only 15 micrograms per gram of fat, suggesting that in some way the ascorbic acid protects the tocopherol content of the tissue. The protective action of ascorbic acid against encephalomalacia has also been observed by Zacharias et al. (1950). Dam, Prange and Sondergaard (1952) concluded, after a series of experiments, that this protective action could not be explained on the basis of a protective effect of the …

SINCE the report by Singsen et al. (1955) that certain antioxidants including diphenyl-p-phenylenediamine (DPPD) are effective in preventing experimentally induced encephalomalacia, there has been considerable interest in these compounds and their effects when added to poultry feeds. Previously, Dam et al. (1948 (1951) reported that certain substances having antioxidant activity afforded partial protection against certain vitamin E deficiency symptoms. Dam et al. (1952) reported that certain compounds possessing antioxidant activity, including alpha tocopherol, increased the deposition of vitamin A in the livers of chicks receiving a vitamin E deficient diet containing 10% cod liver oil. It has been reported from our Laboratory by Kramke et al. (1952) that when a suboptimal level of vitamin A activity was furnished in the form of alfalfa meal, chick growth was stimulated by adding crude soybean lecithin, defatted lecithin or crude soybean oil to the ration. It was also noted at that time that …