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The White Paper on Chinese population policy, entitled "Family Planning in China," was issued by the Chinese Information Office of the State Council on August 23, 1995. The population problem is an important question that touches upon the survival and development of the Chinese nation, the success or failure of China's modernization drive as well as the coordinated and sustained development between the population on one hand and the economy, society, resources and environment on the other. It is a natural choice that the Chinese government has made to implement family planning, control population growth and improve the life quality of the population a basic state policy on the basis of a wish to make the state strong and powerful, the nation prosperous and the people happy. In the 1960s, the country's population entered its second peak birth period. From 1962 to 1972, the annual number of births in China averaged 26.69 million, totaling 300 million. In the practice of carrying out family planning programme, whilst persistently proceeding from its reality and taking into full account and observing principles and regulations concerning population and family planning formulated by international institutions and organizations, the Chinese government has gradually set up guiding principles, policies, measures and methods that reflect the basic interests and various rights and interests of the people and has continuously improved these as the actual situations change, so as to better safeguard the right to subsistence and development of the Chinese region.

The author responds to comments by Monica Das Gupta on a research paper previously circulated by the author. In the paper the author attempted to link gender imbalance in Asia to the prevalence of the hepatitis B virus. The author argues that women who are carriers of the virus give birth to more male children than those who do are not. She also argues that 45 percent of the gender imbalance can be attributed to hepatitis B. Das Gupta argues that the hepatitis B explanation is unlikely to be significant, since sex ratios in China differ over time, and among families in ways that evidence the couple's preferences.

Copyright of Population & Development Review is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The article discusses various abstracts published in the December 01, 1984 issue of the journal "Population & Development Review." The paper "Industrial Development and Labor Absorption: A Reinterpretation" discusses various theoretical positions taken on industrial labor absorption in the Third World and presents data from Latin America that challenge the neoclassical assumption of a straight forward transfer of labor to the modern sector accompanying development. An alternative interpretation of recent trends in labor mobility and absorption in the region is proposed that views the informal sector as an instrument for dealing with variable labor demand; "Famine in China, 1958-61" discusses the largest famine in human history occurred in China in modern times and passed almost unrecognized by the outside world. Demographic evidence indicates that famine during 1958-61 caused almost 30 million premature deaths in China and reduced fertility very significantly. The paper "Family Size and Educational Attainment in Kenya" reports on the negative relationship between a child's educational attainment and family size. This paper re-examines the link in the light of new empirical evidence for Kenya. In addition, it looks at the effect of a rising private rate of return to education on parents' distribution of educational investment resources among offspring.

Copyright of Population & Development Review is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The article discusses various abstracts published in the September 1, 1984 issue of the journal "Population & Development Review." The topic "Wives and Work: The Sex Role Revolution and Its Consequences" discusses that for nearly a century virtually every industrial country has experienced a steady increase in the proportion of married women in paid employment. Today over half of US wives under age 60 are employed, and within 15 to 20 years their employment rate seems likely to approximate that of married men. Separating the workplace from the home, that system destroyed for the first time in human history the direct division of labor between husband and wife. The paper "Population Growth, Industrial Revolutions, and the Urban Transition" reports an effort to model Third World urbanization. An eight-sector general equilibrium model is used to identify the macroeconomic and demographic forces driving past, present, and future urbanization among a group of 40 developing countries. In "Fertility in Pre-revolutionary Rural China" China's fertility is discussed. It is argued here that the Buck survey sample was not representative of China, that the means by which the data were collected prompt doubts about their accuracy, and that the discarding of data for some localities biased the estimates.

Copyright of Population & Development Review is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Population & Development Review is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The article presents abstracts of certain research studies on public health. The research paper "Did the 1918-19 Influenza Pandemic Originate in China?" seeks to establish whether China, like most other countries, experienced an influenza outbreak in 1918-19 and to gauge its extent and severity. It evaluates the suggestion that the 1918-19 influenza virus originated in China and was carried to France by Chinese migrant workers during World War I. The investigation covers statistical and other materials for Hong Kong and Shanghai, non-statistical materials for elsewhere in China, and British archival records relating to the recruitment and transportation to France of Chinese workers. The research paper "Changes in the Quantum of Russian Fertility During the 1980s and Early 1990s," investigate whether Russia's dramatic fertility changes pre- and post-Soviet times were due primarily to tempo effects, as has been argued recently, or to quantum effects, this study standardizes for factors that distort conventional fertility indexes.

Copyright of Population & Development Review is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This essay draws on an original cross-sectional survey of 1,010 children and their guardians in highly migratory regions of Anhui and Jiangxi provinces located in China's interior. It uses propensity score matching, a technique that mitigates endogenity, to examine the impact of parental migration and post-migration guardianship arrangements on the children's educational performance as measured by test scores for Chinese and mathematics. One core finding is that the educational performance of children is adversely affected by parental migration only when both parents migrate or when a non-parent guardian is the principal carer. Additionally, longer durations of parental absence are associated with poorer educational performance. The migration of two parents only significantly adversely affects the educational performance of boys. There is no significant effect on the educational performance of girls. On the basis of our findings we argue that rather than support left-behind children within the countryside, the long-term policy response should be to remove the institutional obstacles that prevent family resettlement in the cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An essay is presented on the scientific and political discourses surrounding China's sex ratio. Particular focus is given to negative perceptions of rural single men. According to the author, overly broad usage of the term patriarchy and cultural stereotypes about rural men have impeded an accurate understanding of China's demographic issues. Other topics include sex-selective abortion, violence, and human trafficking.

Focusing on the craft aspect of population research-the generally unremarked fact that behind our well-turned-out publications lie particular, historically situated humans using craft-type techniques-this essay traces the history of the making of population knowledge about China by the author over some twenty-five years. At least in this case, population research has taken the form not of a stable subdiscipline, but of a loose, flexible, opportunistic assemblage-of concerns, logics, techniques, methods, and ethics-that has been guided by some of the big questions posed by China's post-Mao global rise. It suggests that, unlike disciplines and inter-disciplines, population studies is a post-disciplinary assemblage whose contents and boundaries are flexible, varying with the practitioner and the research question being explored. Recounting more individual histories of population knowledge-making would help us see the strong shaping role of historical contexts and personal values in the crafting of population thought. Such insights would help us recognize the diverse pathways by which population knowledge is formed and the different purposes for which it is pursued. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article draws on a survey conducted in six provinces in summer 2008 to investigate the determinants of son preference in rural china. The analysis confirms the conventional wisdom that son preference is embedded within patrilineal family structures and practices. We extend our analysis by exploring specific aspects of variation within patrilineal family culture. We find that the patrilineal group (clan) composition of villages and family participation in practices such as building ancestral halls and updating genealogies significantly influence son preference. Yet even though son preference is embedded within patrilineal family culture, our analysis suggests that over time the attenuation of son preference is likely. This is because determinants associated with socioeconomic change-for instance, higher levels of education, direct exposure to official policy education materials, higher income (a proxy for rural industrialization), and agricultural mechanization-all attenuate son preference. Being younger and female are also associated with weaker son preference, and both characteristics are likely to interact with education and industrialization to further dilute son preference in the longer term. Nevertheless, our findings suggest that concerted efforts are needed to ameliorate institutional discrimination against rural people in welfare provisioning and in labor markets, and to promote multiple dimensions of gender equality, including in land rights, wage rates, and education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A simple method is proposed for projecting future deficits in a defined benefit or defined contribution pension scheme. The annual pension deficit rate is expressed in terms of the elderly dependency ratio (determined by demographic factors), the average retirement age, and a few parameters describing the scheme. An illustrative application to China demonstrates that if the average age at retirement gradually increases from the current low level to age 65 for both men and women in 2050, the annual pension deficit rate would be greatly reduced or even eliminated under various plausible demographic regimes over this period. With all else equal, a transition to a two-child policy (assuming this would raise fertility) would also lower the deficit rate in comparison to keeping the current fertility policy unchanged, although the effect would be seen only after 2030. The effect of potentially faster mortality decline in raising future deficits is appreciable and starts earlier than the effects of fertility change. The proposed method may also be used to gauge the magnitudes and timing of impacts on future pension deficits of alternative assumptions regarding levels and age/sex composition of international migration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article analyzes demographic transition trends in China, focusing on the dramatic fall in the country's mortality and fertility rates during the course of the 20th century. The role of the Chinese state in implementing policies designed to bring about these demographic changes is analyzed, and an overview of the history of these policies is presented. Population estimates are used to forecast China's long-term demographic future, focusing on the effects which the legacy of the country's singularly rapid demographic transition is likely to produce.

The article challenges the notion that below-replacement fertility and its local variation in China are primarily attributable to the government's birth planning policy. Data from the 2000 census and provincial statistical yearbooks are used to compare fertility in Jiangsu and Zhejiang, two of the most developed provinces in China, to examine the relationship between socioeconomic development and low fertility. The article demonstrates that although low fertility in China was achieved under the government's restrictive one-child policy, structural changes brought about by socioeconomic development and ideational shifts accompanying the new wave of globalization played a key role in China's fertility reduction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many scholars argue that the persistence of son preference in China is driven by greater anticipated old-age support from sons than from daughters and the absence of formal financial mechanisms for families to save for retirement. The introduction of a voluntary old-age pension program in rural China in the 1990s presents the opportunity to examine (1) whether parents with sons are less likely to participate in pension plans and (2) whether providing access to pension plans affects parental sex-selection decisions. Consistent with the first hypothesis, we find that parents with sons are less likely to participate in the pension program and have less financial savings for retirement. Consistent with the second hypothesis, we find that an increase in county-level pension program availability is associated with a slower increase in the sex ratio at birth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The apparently inexorable rise in the proportion of “missing girls” in much of East and South Asia has attracted much attention among researchers and policymakers. An encouraging trend was suggested by the case of South Korea, where child sex ratios (males to females under age 5) were the highest in Asia but peaked in the mid-1990s and normalized thereafter. Using census data, we examine whether similar trends have begun to manifest themselves in the two most populous countries of this region, China and India. The data indicate that child sex ratios are peaking in these countries, and in many subnational regions are beginning to trend toward lower, more normal values. This suggests that, with continuing economic and social development and vigorous public policy efforts to reduce son preference, the “missing girls” phenomenon could eventually disappear in Asia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the confluence of local population transitions (demographic transition and urbanization) with non-local in-migration in the Tibetan areas of western China. The objective is to assess the validity of Tibetan perceptions of “population invasion” by Han Chinese and Chinese Muslims. The article argues that migration to Tibet from other regions in China has been concentrated in urban areas and has been counterbalanced by more rapid rates of natural increase in the Tibetan rural areas—among the highest rates in China. Overall, it is not clear whether there is any risk of population invasion in the Tibetan areas. However, given that non-Tibetan migration to Tibet has been concentrated in urban areas, Tibetans have probably become a minority in many of their strategic cities and towns, and non-Tibetan migrants definitely dominate urban employment. Therefore, while the Tibetan notion of population invasion may be a misperception, it reflects a legitimate concern that in-migration may be exacerbating the economic exclusion of Tibetan locals in the context of rapid urban-centered development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dramatic political, economic, and social changes in China over the past several decades have been accompanied by much discussion in popular media and among academics of a fundamental transformation in Chinese sexual behavior. Several studies have examined current Chinese sexual behavior but have been limited to particular provinces or cities and have been based on non-random samples. The potential threat of a generalized HIV epidemic in China highlights the dearth of population-based information on current patterns of sexual behavior that could help design better intervention strategies and prevent misguided ones. This article uses data from the first national probability survey of adult sexual behavior in China completed during 1999–2000, along with a historical and literature review, to address three key questions: 1) Has there been a revolution in sexual behavior in China? 2) Is China unique compared to other countries in these transformations? 3) What are the implications of these findings for China's risk of a generalized HIV epidemic? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coital frequency is at the heart of the debate over low marital fertility in pretransition China. This study argues that coital frequency in contemporary China is indicative of sexual behavior in an earlier era. Frequency of intercourse is low in China relative to Europe, a natural outgrowth of a traditional family system and related sexual culture only partially transformed by a century of family revolution. Customary sexual behaviors and breastfeeding practices together shaped the Chinese historical fertility regime as they did the European. As explanations for China's low marital fertility, these proximate determinants leave little scope for the operation of fecundity-reducing malnutrition on the one hand, or deliberate fertility control on the other. The fertility regimes of other pretransition agrarian societies more closely resemble China's than Europe's, seeming to confirm a pattern of European demographic exceptionalism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article compares five currently debated scenarios for fertility policy transition in China, in terms of their implications for future population growth and population aging, the proportions of elderly living alone, labor force trends, pension deficits, economic costs, the marriage squeeze, and other socioeconomic outcomes. Based on these comparative analyses, the author concludes that China needs to begin a gradual modification of its fertility policy as soon as possible. He proposes a three-stage “soft-landing” strategy for fertility policy transition: (1) a 7-year initial smooth transition period; (2) from approximately 2014-15 to 2032-35 a universal two-child policy combined with late childbearing in both rural and urban areas; (3) after 2032-35 all Chinese citizens would be free to choose family size and fertility timing. This strategy will enable China to have much more favorable demographic conditions and socioeconomic outcomes, as compared to keeping the current policy unchanged. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growing female deficit that appeared in China during the 1980s has been widely discussed in the literature, but its future demographic consequences have been little explored. This article investigates the potential consequences of the female deficit on population growth, the number of births, and sex structure. The long-term effects of China's female deficit will not be measured only in terms of a shortage of marriage partners for males, but will also be felt in the lost childbirths consequent on these nonformed unions. The article identifies these effects using population projections based on four divergent scenarios concerning the sex ratio at birth between 2000 and 2050. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines China's socioeconomic transformation towards health and mortality that began during the late 1970s. These socioeconomic transformations have led to great economic growth, and living standards even in the poorest parts of China have improved over a twenty-five year time span. A survey was conducted by the author to gauge the scope and breadth of those economic reforms, and the study found that while living standards have improved greatly in China, an inequality of income distribution has emerged as well.

China's fertility level has become a matter of considerable debate since the early 1990s. Despite the widespread concern over data quality, a review of the literature reveals little systematic examination of how fertility data are collected, what specific problems they pose, and how they have been used in demographic research. This article examines five major fertility data sources and identifies problems in producing and using fertility data and discusses their implications. Issues relating to China's controversial 2000 census results and the reported low fertility are examined. The analysis concludes that the prevalent uncertainty about fertility levels may not only be related to the problem of data quality, but could also arise from misinterpreting fertility data and exaggerating the problem of undercounting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The usual lessons drawn from East Asia's striking experience of health and fertility transition concern the efficacy of well-designed government programs catering to an existing or ideationally stimulated demand. An alternative interpretation sees the demographic change—and the uptake of services—as a byproduct of social and economic development together with, in some cases, strong government pressures. This article probes more deeply into this experience, seeking to identify common features of development design and administration that underlay it. The broad sequence entailed, initially, establishment of an effective, typically authoritarian, system of local administration, providing (sometimes incidentally) a framework for promotion and service delivery in health, education, and family planning. Subsequent economic liberalization offered new opportunities for upward mobility—and greater risks of backsliding—but along with erosion of social capital and the breakdown or privatization of service programs. The study is mainly focused on seven countries: Taiwan and South Korea (“tiger” economies), Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia (“second wave” countries), and China and Vietnam (“market-Leninist” economies). The period is roughly from the 1960s to the 1990s. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This note analyzes China's provincial diversity from two perspectives. First, the regional gross domestic products of China's 31 mainland provinces are compared with the national GDP of other countries. This demonstrates that China's most advanced provinces and urban areas have per capita GDP levels comparable to those of Sweden and Singapore. On the other hand, China's least developed provinces have a standard of living similar to those of Sudan and Honduras. The second part of the analysis demonstrates that China's economic diversity is not unique. In fact, European countries exhibit almost the same degree of income diversity as do Chinese provinces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article uses tabulations from the 2000 Population Census of China along with a micro level data sample from the census to provide a picture of China's floating population. The "floating population," or "hukou" refers to the large and increasing number of migrants without local household registration status. The growth of this population group reflects fundamental social and demographic changes in Chinese society since the early 1980s. It would have been very difficult to imagine such a large number of individuals living outside of their places of household registration 30 years ago, for the simple fact that one could not survive in cities without local hukou status at that time. China's market reforms since the late 1970s have significantly weakened the government's control over geographic mobility and its ability to enforce the hukou system. Despite the demographic importance of this population, estimates of its size are wide ranging and little is known about its impact on communities of origin and destination.

Copyright of Population & Development Review is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Population & Development Review is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Population & Development Review is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Population & Development Review is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Population & Development Review is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Population & Development Review is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Population & Development Review is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The article presents a study which summarized understanding of Chinese demographic behavior and confronted the classic Malthusian model that has predominated in economic and demographic theory from 1700 through 2000. For Robert Malthus and many contemporary historians, China, one of the richest of human societies, was also one of the poorest. Despite the advantages of natural geography, native industry and a patriarchal state that raised agricultural production and agricultural productivity to prodigious levels, Chinese living standards were characterized by low wages and poor nutrition. Recent Chinese evidence suggests that Malthus' understanding of mortality, especially infanticide, needs qualification. In China, the distinctive influence of mortality on population was not through famines or epidemics, but through individual proactive interventions. Excess female infant mortality, combined with a significant gap between males and females in the customary age at marriage, produced the second distinctive feature of the Chinese demographic system: an unbalanced marriage market according to sex. Females married universally and early. Males married later, if at all. Such persistently high nuptiality, however, did not inflate Chinese fertility because of the low level of fertility within marriage. Finally, in spite of the strong Chinese preoccupation with perpetuation of lineage and adherence to a social welfare system that relied on family and lineage, Chinese parents ironically had to resort frequently to fictive kinship and adoption to replace biological descendants, a byproduct of low fertility and low survivorship.

Copyright of Population & Development Review is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Population & Development Review is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Population & Development Review is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The article examines the problem of abandonment, focusing primarily on Hunan, a province of China with a 1994 population of 65 million, about which some unusually candid official investigative information has been published. The statistical data available on this problem in Hunan and presented here are far from adequate to reach firm conclusions. But when augmented with other pieces of relevant information, they, along with other documentary evidence, provide insight into the problem of abandonment. Interviews conducted in four areas of China between 1991 and 1995. One of the least investigated consequences of birth planning policies in China is the abandonment of infants. Chinese officials, as well as the population involved, have shrouded this practice in secrecy, reflecting shame and political embarrassment. According to the aforementioned provincial history, the widespread nature of infant abandonment and infanticide led to the criminalization by the late seventeenth century and to the creation of a province-wide network of foundling homes.

Copyright of Population & Development Review is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Population & Development Review is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Population & Development Review is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Population & Development Review is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Population & Development Review is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Population & Development Review is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Population & Development Review is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Population & Development Review is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Population & Development Review is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)