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Background: Scientific literature on cystic echinococcosis (CE) reporting data on risk factors is limited and to the best of our knowledge, no global evaluation of human CE risk factors has to date been performed. This systematic review (SR) summarizes available data on statistically relevant potential risk factors (PRFs) associated with human CE. Methodology/Principal Findings: Database searches identified 1,367 papers, of which thirty-seven were eligible for inclusion. Of these, eight and twenty-nine were case-control and cross-sectional studies, respectively. Among the eligible papers, twenty-one were included in the meta-analyses. Pooled odds ratio (OR) were used as a measure of effect and separately analysed for the two study designs. PRFs derived from case-control studies that were significantly associated with higher odds of outcome were “dog free to roam” (OR 5.23; 95% CI 2.45–11.14), “feeding dogs with viscera” (OR 4.69; 95% CI 3.02–7.29), “slaughter at home” (OR 4.67; 95% CI 2.02–10.78) or at “slaughterhouses” (OR 2.7; 95% CI 1.15–6.3), “dog ownership” (OR 3.54; 95% CI 1.27–9.85), “living in rural areas” (OR 1.83; 95% CI 1.16–2.9) and “low income” (OR 1.68; 95% CI 1.02–2.76). Statistically significant PRFs from cross-sectional studies with higher odds of outcome were “age >16 years” (OR 6.08; 95% CI 4.05–9.13), “living in rural areas” (OR 2.26; 95% CI 1.41–3.61), “being female” (OR 1.38; 95% CI 1.06–1.8) and “dog ownership” (OR 1.37; 95% CI 1.01–1.86). Conclusions/Significance: Living in endemic rural areas, in which free roaming dogs have access to offal and being a dog-owner, seem to be among the most significant PRFs for acquiring this parasitic infection. Results of data analysed here may contribute to our understanding of the PRFs for CE and may potentially be useful in planning community interventions aimed at controlling CE in endemic areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Taenia solium, a pork-borne parasitic zoonosis, is the cause of taeniasis and cysticercosis in humans. In Vietnam, poor sanitation, the practice of outdoor defecation and consumption of raw/undercooked pork have been associated with infection/exposure to T. solium in both humans and pigs. The broad-scale geographic distribution of the prevalence of T. solium varies throughout the country with infection restricted to isolated foci in the north and a more sporadic geographic distribution in the Central Highlands and the south. While cross-sectional studies have allowed the broad-scale geographic distribution of T. solium to be described, details of the geographic distribution of T. solium at finer spatial scales have not been described in detail. This study provides a descriptive spatial analysis of T. solium exposure in humans and pigs and T. solium taeniasis in humans within individual households in village communities of Dak Lak in the Central Highlands of Vietnam. Methodology/Principal findings: We used Ripley’s K-function to describe spatial dependence in T. solium exposure positive and negative human and pig households and T. solium taeniasis exposure positive and negative households in villages within the districts of Buon Don, Krong Nang and M’Drak of Dak Lak province in the Central Highlands of Vietnam. The prevalence of exposure to T. solium in pigs in Dak Lak province was 9 (95% CI 5 to 17) cases per 1000 pigs at risk. The prevalence of exposure to the parasite in humans was somewhat higher at 5 (95% CI 3 to 8) cases per 100 individuals at risk. Spatial aggregations of T. solium exposure-positive pig and human households occurred in some, but not all of the villages in the three study districts. Human exposure-positive households were found to be aggregated within a distance of 200 to 300 m in villages in Krong Nang district compared with distances of up to 1200 m in villages in M’Drak district. Although this study demonstrated the aggregation of households in which either T. solium exposure- or taeniasis-positive individuals were present, we were unable to identify an association between the two due to the very low number of T. solium taeniasis-positive households. Conclusions: Spatial aggregations of T. solium exposure-positive pig and human households occurred in some, but not all of the villages in the three study districts. We were unable to definitively identify reasons for these findings but speculate that they were due to a combination of demographic, anthropological and micro-environmental factors. To more definitively identify characteristics that increase cysticercosis risk we propose that cross-sectional studies similar in design to that described in this paper should be applied in other provinces of Vietnam. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Human alveolar echinococcosis (AE) is a severe zoonotic disease caused by the metacestode stage of Echinococcus multilocularis. AE is commonly associated with a long incubation period that may last for more than ten years. The objective of this systematic literature review was to identify and summarize the current knowledge on statistically relevant potential risk factors (PRFs) associated with AE in humans. Methodology/Principal findings: Six bibliographic databases were searched, generating a total of 1,009 publications. Following the removal of duplicate records and the exclusion of papers that failed to meet the criteria of a previously agreed a priori protocol, 23 publications were retained; however, 6 of these did not contain data in a format that allowed their inclusion in the meta-analysis. The remaining 17 publications (6 case-control and 11 cross-sectional studies) were meta-analysed to investigate associations between AE and PRFs. Pooled odds ratio (OR) were used as a measure of effect and separately analysed for case-control and cross-sectional studies. In the case-control studies, the following PRFs for human AE showed higher odds of outcome: “dog ownership”, “cat ownership”, “have a kitchen garden”, “occupation: farmer”, “haymaking in meadows not adjacent to water”, “went to forests for vocational reasons”, “chewed grass” and “hunting / handling foxes”. In the cross-sectional studies, the following PRFs showed higher odds of outcome: “dog ownership”, “play with dogs”, “gender: female”, “age over 20 years”, “ethnic group: Tibetan”, “low income”, “source of drinking water other than well or tap”, “occupation: herding” and “low education”. Our meta-analysis confirmed that the chance of AE transmission through ingestion of food and water contaminated with E. multilocularis eggs exists, but showed also that food- and water-borne PRFs do not significantly increase the risk of infection. Conclusions/significance: This systematic review analysed international peer-reviewed articles that have over the years contributed to our current understanding of the epidemiology of human AE. The identification of potential risk factors may help researchers and decision makers improve surveillance and/or preventive measures that aim at decreasing human infection with E. multilocularis. More primary studies are needed to confirm potential risk factors and their role in the epidemiology of human AE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]