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Electronic devices made from organic materials have the potential to support a more ecologically friendly and affordable future. However, the ability to fabricate devices with well-defined and reproducible electrical and optical properties is hindered by the sensitivity to the presence of chemical impurities. Oxygen in particular is an impurity that can trap electrons and modify conductive properties of some organic materials. Until now the 3-dimensional profiling of oxygen species in organic semiconductors has been elusive and the effect of oxygen remains disputed. In this study we map out high-spatial resolution 3-dimensional distributions of oxygen inclusions near the surface of single crystal rubrene, using Time of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (ToF-SIMS). Channels of diffused oxygen are found extending from uniform oxygen inclusion layers at the surface. These channels extend to depths in excess of 1.8 μm and act as an entry point for oxygen to diffuse along the ab-plane of the crystal with at least some of the diffused oxygen molecularly binding to rubrene. Our investigation of surfaces at different stages of evolution reveals the extent of oxygen inclusion, which affects rubrene's optical and transport properties, and is consequently of importance for the reliability and longevity of devices.

To address the question of surface oxidation in organic electronics the chemical composition at the surface of single crystalline rubrene is spatially profiled and analyzed using Time of Flight - Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (ToF-SIMS). It is seen that a uniform oxide (C42H28O) covers the surface while there is an increased concentration of peroxide (C42H28O2) located at crystallographic defects. By analyzing the effects of different primary ions, temperature and sputtering agents the technique of ToF-SIMS is developed as a valuable tool for the study of chemical composition variance both at and below the surface of organic single crystals. The primary ion beams C60(3+) and Bi3(+) are found to be most appropriate for mass spectroscopy and spatial profiling respectively. Depth profiling of the material is successfully undertaken maintaining the molecular integrity to a depth of ~5 μm using an Ar cluster ion source as the sputtering agent.

Tracer diffusion of protons and oxide ions, as well as chemical diffusion of water, have been determined for the high temperature proton conductor lanthanum tungstate by means of time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS). The oxygen tracer diffusion and surface exchange coefficients, D(O)* and k(O)*, were measured after exchange anneals in water vapor enriched in H(2)(18)O between 350 and 620 °C, and the apparent activation energies were 176 and 82 kJ mol(-1), respectively. The hydrogen tracer diffusion coefficient (D(H)*) was measured between 220 and 320 °C after exchange anneals in D(2)O-containing atmospheres, and the apparent activation energy was 63 kJ mol(-1). The extracted D(H)* agrees with the results of transient conductivity- and TG-measurements. Chemical diffusion and surface exchange coefficients, D(H)δ and k(H)δ, were measured at 250 and 400 °C, and the result confirms that the material is hydrated by ambipolar sluggish transport of protons and oxide ions. The surface exchange coefficients were compared to the result of TG relaxation, suggesting that access to oxygen vacancies limits the overall surface exchange reaction under incorporation of water and oxygen.