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Increasingly mobile careers mean that today's hiring firms encounter external prospective employees who hold professional affiliations with more organizations (e.g., former employers) and groups (e.g., project teams) than ever before. This trend invites attention to a collection of hiring practices in which a firm leverages prospective hires' professional affiliations to increase the firm's access to and facilitate the efficient selection of individuals in a particular labor market talent segment--hereafter, hiring by professional affiliation (HBPA). We review research on six HBPA practices: acqui-hiring, boomerang hiring, competitor poaching, formative affiliation hiring, liftouts, and supply chain hiring. Using Podolny's pipes and prisms metaphor, we show that research on HBPA has emphasized hiring organizations' efforts to (a) leverage prospective hires' focal professional affiliations as prisms to facilitate matching between the organization and new hires, and (b) leverage new hires' focal affiliations as pipes to access resources otherwise difficult to acquire. Transcending the focus of extant research on individual HBPA practices, we then develop propositions elaborating the conditions under which HBPA is likely to yield varied consequences for firms' workforce composition and organizational capabilities--ranging from replicating the status quo to increasing workforce diversity and organizational capacity for innovation and change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

"Managing AI Wisely: From Development to Organizational Change in Practice" is a comprehensive and informative book that provides valuable insights into the field of AI. It is suitable for both academia and industry, with potential applications in teaching, research, and workplace operations. The book covers various topics such as the development of AI, its practical applications, and the impact of AI on organizational change. It includes case studies and practical examples to illustrate the concepts discussed. Overall, "Managing AI Wisely" is a valuable resource for understanding and utilizing AI effectively. [Extracted from the article]

We compare modern machine learning (MML) techniques to ordinary least squares (OLS) regression on out‐of‐sample (OOS) operational validity, adverse impact, and dropped predictor counts within a common selection scenario: the prediction of job performance from a battery of diverse psychometrically‐validated tests. In total, scores from 1.2 billion validation study participants were simulated to describe outcomes across 31,752 combinations selection system design and scoring decisions. The most consistently valuable improvement from adopting MML over traditional regression was from dropping predictors rather than by improving prediction. On average, MML improved prediction of performance from psychometric scale composites only when the ratio of sample size to scale count was less than approximately 3, although algorithm choice, predictor count, and selection ratio affected outcomes as well. We also simulated the effects of design choices when combining item scores, which showed consistent, superior predictive accuracy for several MML algorithms, especially elastic net and random forest, over traditional regression. Given these results, we suggest the potential of machine learning for employee selection is unlikely to be realized in selection systems focusing on the combination of scale composites from previously validated psychometric tests. Instead, it will be realized in unconventional design scenarios, such as the use of individual items to make multiple trait inferences, or with novel data formats like text, image, audio, video, and behavioral traces. We therefore recommend researchers focus on the potential value of MML in future selection contexts rather than continuing to focus on the current value of MML in current selection contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Personnel Psychology has a long tradition of publishing important research on personnel selection. In this article, we review some of the key questions and findings from studies published in the journal and in the selection literature more broadly. In doing so, we focus on the various decisions organizations face regarding selection procedure development (e.g., use multiple selection procedures, contextualize procedure content), administration (e.g., provide pre‐test explanations, reveal target knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics [KSAOs]), and scoring (e.g., weight predictors and criteria, use artificial intelligence). Further, we focus on how these decisions affect the validity of inferences drawn from the procedures, how use of the procedures may affect organizational diversity, and how applicants experience the procedures. We also consider factors such as cost and time. Based on our review, we highlight practical implications and key directions for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A significant percentage of veterans suffer from post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Veterans are often directed to social media platforms to seek support during their transition to civilian life. However, social media platforms are increasingly used to aid in hiring decisions, and these platforms may make veterans' PTSD more discoverable during the hiring process. Based on social identity theory and identity management theory, the integrated suspicion model, and the stigma literature, we conducted four studies that examine veterans' PTSD disclosures on social media and the consequences in the hiring process. Study 1 suggests that 16%–34% of veterans included cues related to PTSD status on social media. Study 2, based on 290 upper‐level business students, shows that veterans with PTSD were more stigmatized than veterans without PTSD, and stigmatization is associated with more suspicion and lower hiring‐related ratings (of expected task performance, expected organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB), expected counterproductive work behaviors (CWB), and intention to interview). Study 3, based on 431 working professionals with hiring experience, further supports relationships from Study 2. Study 4, based on 298 working professionals, identifies peril (i.e., perceptions regarding danger) as an additional mediator for the effects of PTSD on hiring‐related ratings. In sum, we identify and explore the identity management conundrum that social media disclosure poses for veterans with PTSD in the hiring process and discuss potential remedies and avenues for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Various surveys suggest LinkedIn is used as a screening and selection tool by many hiring managers. Despite this widespread use, fairly little is known about whether LinkedIn meets established selection criteria, such as reliability, validity, and legality (i.e., no adverse impact). We examine the properties of LinkedIn‐based assessments in two studies. Study 1 shows that raters reach acceptable levels of consistency in their assessments of applicant skills, personality, and cognitive ability. Initial ratings also correlate with subsequent ratings done 1‐year later (i.e., demonstrating temporal stability), with slightly higher correlations when profile updates are taken into account. Initial LinkedIn‐based ratings correlate with self‐reports for more visible skills (leadership, communication, and planning) and personality traits (Extraversion), and for cognitive ability. LinkedIn‐based hiring recommendations are positively associated with indicators of career success. Potential adverse impact is also limited. Profiles that are longer, include a picture, and have more connections are rated more positively. Some of those features are valid cues to applicants' characteristics (e.g., applicants high on Conscientiousness have longer profiles). In Study 2, we show that an itemized LinkedIn assessment is more effective than a global assessment. Implications of these findings for selection and future research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The literature on employee referral hiring gives little attention to referrers. Synthesizing 2 theories in the literature (the better match and social enrichment accounts), through the lens of social resources theory, I provide a conceptual and empirical breakdown of the effects of referrer quality (referrer performance at hire and referrer tenure at hire) and posthire accessibility (referrer employment and referrer-referral hire job congruence) on referral hire performance and likelihood of voluntary turnover. I tested my hypotheses with longitudinal data from 386 referrer-referral hire pairs at the same job level in a U.S. call center over a 2-year period. Across analyses of 2 performance criteria (calls/hour and quality) and likelihood of leaving, I found a nuanced mix of benefits and liabilities that illuminate potential boundary conditions of the revised theories. Referral hires from high-performing referrers performed better but had higher turnover propensities than those from lower performing referrers. Longer-tenured employees also produced better performing referral hires, up to a point. Referral hires were less likely to leave, provided their referrer remained employed, but they performed less effectively under this condition. Similarly, referral hires performed worse when their job was congruent with their referrer's job. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Applicants use honest and deceptive impression management (IM) in employment interviews. Deceptive IM is especially problematic because it can lead organizations to hire less competent but deceptive applicants if interviewers are not able to identify the deception. We investigated interviewers' capacity to detect IM in 5 experimental studies using real-time video coding of IM ( N = 246 professional interviewers and 270 novice interviewers). Interviewers' attempts to detect applicants' IM were often unsuccessful. Interviewers were better at detecting honest than deceptive IM. Interview question type affected IM detection, but interviewers' experience did not. Finally, interviewers' perceptions of IM use by applicants were related to their evaluations of applicants' performance in the interview. Interviewers' attempts to adjust their evaluations of applicants they perceive to use deceptive IM may fail because they cannot correctly identify when applicants actually engage in various IM tactics. Helping interviewers to better identify deceptive IM tactics used by applicants may increase the validity of employment interviews. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although - to quote a paradox discussed in the last chapter by Christopher Robert and Scott Seyrek - humor may appear and maybe even is "very simple" (p. 139) at first glance, it is also "extraordinarily complex" (p. 139). We get 10 interesting, well-written, and partly even thought-provoking chapters on several aspects of humor at work, and these chapters encourage the reader to start doing research on humor in the workplace. Jumping to the last chapter by Christopher Robert and Scott Seyrek, we might have some ideas about why humor is important in certain aspects of work life, and the chapters collected in this book do their best to explicate and even complement our intuitive ideas. [Extracted from the article]

We revisit a long-held assumption in human resource management, organizational behavior, and industrial and organizational psychology that individual performance follows a Gaussian (normal) distribution. We conducted 5 studies involving 198 samples including 633,263 researchers, entertainers, politicians, and amateur and professional athletes. Results are remarkably consistent across industries, types of jobs, types of performance measures, and time frames and indicate that individual performance is not normally distributed-instead, it follows a Paretian (power law) distribution. Assuming normality of individual performance can lead to misspecified theories and misleading practices. Thus, our results have implications for all theories and applications that directly or indirectly address the performance of individual workers including performance measurement and management, utility analysis in preemployment testing and training and development, personnel selection, leadership, and the prediction of performance, among others. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the fact that cognitive ability tests are highly predictive of job applicants' future performance, these tests are often viewed as procedurally unfair by both hiring managers and job applicants. In this paper, we build on existing rationales by theorizing that status-both personal and organizational-may affect individuals' procedural justice perceptions of selection tests. In 2 quasi-experimental studies representing 435 managers and executives across both the United States and United Kingdom, we demonstrate that status is a double-edged sword: helpful for high-status organizations that use demanding selection tests to choose applicants but harmful because high-status job applicants view these selection tests as more procedurally unjust than low-status applicants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Candidates persist in selection settings for numerous reasons, prompting several concerns regarding staffing-system management. Predictors of the propensity to retest and personality test practice effects were investigated among a sample of 15,338 candidates who applied for supervisory positions (and 357 who repeated the selection process) over a 4-year period with a large organization in the service industry. Results reveal greater likelihood of retesting among internal candidates and overall evidence of small-to-moderate personality test practice effects. Compared to passing candidates who retested for various reasons, failing candidates pursued alternative response strategies upon retesting and generated dimension-level practice effects that reached .40 to .60, whereas passing candidates generally replicated their initial profiles. For several subscales, low initial scores were associated with practice effects that exceeded a full standard deviation. Implications for research, practice, and policy are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Employers often enjoy some discretion in how quickly they extend job offers following candidate interviews. Applicant reactions research suggests that quicker offers are more likely to be accepted. This paper reports an archival study investigating the effect of offer timing on offer acceptance and employment outcomes with field data ( N = 3,012) from 1 large company, including both student ( N = 906) and experienced ( N = 2,106) candidates. The 2 groups differed markedly in their recruiting processes, but job seekers of both types were more likely to accept earlier offers. Further, we found no differences for either performance ratings or turnover among employees hired after quicker offers and those who accepted later offers. It therefore appears that employers may benefit from accelerating their postinterview job offer processes, improving their acceptance rates, and reducing vacancy times without incurring either performance or turnover penalties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most faking research has examined the use of personality measures when using top-down selection. We used simulation to examine the use of personality measures in selection systems using cut scores and outlined a number of issues unique to these situations. In particular, we compared the use of 2 methods of setting cut scores on personality measures: applicant-data-derived (ADD) and nonapplicant-data-derived (NADD) cut-score strategies. We demonstrated that the ADD strategy maximized mean performance resulting from the selection system in the face of applicant faking but that this strategy also resulted in the displacement of deserving applicants by fakers (which has fairness implications). On the other hand, the NADD strategy minimized displacement of deserving applicants but at the cost of some mean performance. Therefore, the use of the ADD versus NADD strategies can be viewed as a strategic decision to be made by the organization, as there is a tradeoff between the 2 strategies in effects on performance versus fairness to applicants. We quantitatively outlined these tradeoffs at various selection ratios, levels of validity, and amounts of faking in the applicant pool. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Employee reactions to promotional examinations were investigated in 2 studies ( N = 498 & 182, respectively) of police officers. Anxiety, motivation, and justice perceptions were examined as possible predictors of promotional exam performance and intentions to recommend the exam to others. Reactions to a promotional examination were significantly and differentially related to those criteria. Motivation predicted performance whereas justice perceptions predicted recommendation intentions. In Study 2, the role of cognitive processing was also investigated. Results indicated that candidate reactions predicted exam performance through cognitive processing mechanisms. Exam motivation facilitated cognitive processing, which resulted in higher levels of exam performance. In contrast, exam anxiety exhibited both facilitative and debilitative cognitive processing effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Job seekers' Conscientiousness and Extraversion show consistent relationships with their job search activities and success, although the explanatory mechanisms for these relationships are unclear ( Kanfer, Wanberg, & Kantrowitz, 2001 ). To explore these mechanisms, we developed and tested a model in which both Conscientiousness and Extraversion influenced metacognitive activities whereas Extraversion alone influenced positive emotions; these mediating variables in turn were predicted to influence resumé submissions, first interviews, second interviews, and job offers. Using longitudinal data collected from 232 job applicants, we found support for these predictions. Interestingly, meta-cognitive activities appeared to be more important in predicting resumé submissions and first interviews, whereas positive emotions predicted success in obtaining second interviews and job offers. We discuss the implications of our results and suggest future directions for research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A recently developed procedure produces substantial improvements in the accuracy of corrections for range restriction and reveals that predictive validities of employment selection methods are higher than previously thought. This study applied this procedure to meta-analytic validities of 2 personality measures (Conscientiousness and Emotional Stability) and general cognitive ability measures. Results show that the increases in validity estimates are greater for cognitive ability than for personality, reducing the relative validity of personality. In addition, the incremental validity of these personality measures over that provided by cognitive ability is smaller than previously estimated. Path analyses based on the more accurate data reveal relatively smaller path coefficients from these personality traits to job and training performance. These findings have implications for theories of job performance and for the practical value in selection of personality measures relative to cognitive ability measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of validated employee selection and promotion procedures is critical to workforce productivity and to the legal defensibility of the personnel decisions made on the basis of those procedures. Consequently, there have been numerous scholarly developments that have considerable implications for the appropriate conduct of criterion-related validity studies. However, there is no single resource researchers can consult to understand how these developments impact practice. The purpose of this article is to summarize and critically review studies published primarily within the past 10 years that address issues pertinent to criterion-related validation. Key topics include (a) validity coefficient correction procedures, (b) the evaluation of multiple predictors, (c) differential prediction analyses, (d) validation sample characteristics, and (e) criterion issues. In each section, we discuss key findings, critique and note limitations of the extant research, and offer conclusions and recommendations for the planning and conduct of criterion-related studies. We conclude by discussing some important but neglected validation issues for which more research is needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study extends previous research by examining the incremental validity of a specific aptitude, perceptual speed and accuracy (PS), when it is operationalized as both the number correct (NC) and the number wrong (NW). We test the hypotheses that the NC on the PS test predicts the criterion of task performance and the NW predicts (negatively) rules compliance (RC). Based on the responses of 133 warehouse workers, hierarchical regression analyses supported both hypotheses. After controlling for respondents' demographic characteristics (race, gender, and age) and general mental ability (GMA), the NC on the PS test accounted for incremental validity in prediction of task performance (Δ R= .06, 15% increase), and the NW on the PS test accounted for substantial incremental validity in prediction of (lack of) RC (Δ R= .16, 73% increase). In addition, after controlling for demographic characteristics and both GMA and the specific ability, Conscientiousness accounted for unique validity in prediction of both task performance (Δ R= .07, 15% increase) and RC (Δ R= .06, 16% increase). Practical and theoretical implications for selection practices and models of job performance are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to racioethnic and sex subgroup differences on predictor scores in many selection procedures, it is difficult for organizations to simultaneously maximize the validity of their selection procedures and hire a diverse workforce. One response to this diversity–validity dilemma is to revise the selection procedures, an approach developed by Ployhart and Holtz (this issue, 2008) . A second possible response is to use affirmative action to increase workforce diversity, an approach developed by Kravitz (this issue, 2008) . This paper briefly presents the legal context that motivates and constrains these approaches. We begin by defining key terms, describing adverse impact, and outlining the burden of proof in adverse impact cases. We then turn to the use of racioethnic minority and female preferences, summarizing some key court decisions and the conditions under which private and public employers may use preferences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several of the most valid predictors used to make employment decisions create a diversity–validity dilemma ( Pyburn, Ployhart, & Kravitz, this issue, 2008 ). This diversity–validity dilemma can be resolved by (a) reducing adverse impact through a variety of technical steps ( Ployhart & Holtz, this issue, 2008 ) or (b) using affirmative action to increase representation of the disadvantaged groups. This paper focuses on the second approach. The paper begins with a very brief review of the legal bases of affirmative action and a summary of the research on affirmative action attitudes. This is followed with reviews of research on the ongoing existence of workplace discrimination, the economic impact of affirmative action on target groups and organizations, and stigmatization of target group members by others and by target group members themselves. Most problems with affirmative action apply only or primarily to preference-based forms, so nonpreferential approaches to affirmative action are recommended to increase the attraction, selection, inclusion, and retention of underrepresented group members. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pyburn, Ployhart, and Kravitz (this issue, 2008) introduced the diversity–validity dilemma: that some of the most valid predictors of job performance are also associated with large racioethnic and sex subgroup predictor score differences. This article examines 16 selection strategies hypothesized to minimize racioethnic and sex subgroup differences and adverse impact and, hence, balance diversity and validity. Rather than presenting a highly technical review, our purpose is to provide practitioners with a concise summary, paying particular attention to comparing and contrasting the effectiveness of the strategies and reporting new developments. The paper is organized around 4 key questions: (a) Which strategies are most effective for reducing subgroup differences? (b) Which strategies do not involve a validity tradeoff? (c) What are the major new developments in strategies for reducing adverse impact? (d) What are the major new developments in alternative predictor measurement methods (e.g., interviews, situational judgment tests, assessment centers) for reducing adverse impact? We then conclude with recommendations and caveats for how to best balance diversity and validity. These ideas are developed further in Kravitz (this issue, 2008) , who considers even broader approaches for solving the diversity–validity dilemma. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite widespread and growing acceptance that published personality tests are valid predictors of job performance, Morgeson et al. (2007) propose they be abandoned in personnel selection because average validity estimates are low. Our review of the literature shows that Morgeson et al.'s skepticism is unfounded. Meta-analyses have demonstrated that published personality tests, in fact, yield useful validity estimates when validation is based on confirmatory research using job analysis and taking into account the bidirectionality of trait–performance linkages. Further gains are likely by use of narrow over broad measures, multivariate prediction, and theory attuned to the complexities of trait expression and evaluation at work. Morgeson et al. also suggest that faking has little, if any, impact on personality test validity and that it may even contribute positively to job performance. Job applicant research suggests that faking under true hiring conditions attenuates personality test validity but that validity is still sufficiently strong to warrant personality test use in hiring. Contrary to Morgeson et al., we argue that the full value of published personality tests in organizations has yet to be realized, calling for programmatic theory-driven research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We recently published an article in which we highlighted a number of issues associated with the use of self-report personality tests in personnel selection contexts ( Morgeson et al., 2007 ). Both Ones, Dilchert, Viswesvaran, and Judge (2007) and Tett and Christiansen (2007) have written responses to this article. In our response to these articles we address many of the issues raised by Ones et al. and Tett and Christiansen. In addition to a detailed response, we make the following 4 key points: (1) Our criticisms of personality testing apply only to the selection context, not to all research on personality; (2) the observed validities of personality tests predicting job performance criteria are low and have not changed much over time; (3) when evaluating the usefulness of using personality tests to select applicants, one must not ignore the observed, uncorrected validity; and (4) when discussing the value of personality tests for selection contexts, the most important criteria are those that reflect job performance. Implications for personality testing research and practice are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Situational judgment tests (SJTs) are personnel selection instruments that present job applicants with work-related situations and possible responses to the situations. There are typically 2 types of instructions: behavioral tendency and knowledge. Behavioral tendency instructions ask respondents to identify how they would likely behave in a given situation. Knowledge instructions ask respondents to evaluate the effectiveness of possible responses to a given situation. Results showed that response instructions influenced the constructs measured by the tests. Tests with knowledge instructions had higher correlations with cognitive ability. Tests with behavioral tendency instructions showed higher correlations with personality constructs. Results also showed that response instructions had little moderating effect on criterion-related validity. Supplemental analyses showed that the moderating effect of response instructions on construct validity was not due to systematic differences in item content. SJTs have incremental validity over cognitive ability, the Big 5, and over a composite of cognitive ability and the Big 5. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the last 10 years have witnessed an increased recognition of the importance of procedural fairness in selection contexts, most empirical research has focused on job relevance as the primary influence on fairness perceptions. There is reason to believe, however, that “opportunity-to-perform” (OTP) perceptions are also an important aspect of fairness perceptions and become particularly important following negative feedback (i.e., not receiving a job offer). Using both qualitative and quantitative data from a large sample of applicants to an agency of the U.S. government ( N= 754), we examine (a) how OTP relates to fairness judgments, (b) how receiving negative feedback affects this relationship, (c) differences in OTP across a variety of different selection methods, and (d) determinants of OTP perceptions. Both qualitative and quantitative analyses confirmed that OTP was an important predictor of overall procedural fairness and was the single most important procedural rule after receiving negative feedback. Practical implications of this pattern, the obtained differences in OTP across assessments, and results regarding the determinants of OTP are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We describe a scientist–practitioner collaboration around a structured employment interview coaching program. This description includes information on how the program was developed and applied, the program content, connections with past literature, and a description of context. We also provide rich anecdotal information and surveys on reactions by users as well as input from the community and various other constituencies. We also describe scientific research on this intervention that has examined its various effects. The specific project goals were to (a) provide assistance to promotion candidates in preparing for a structured panel interview and to survey employee reactions to the program, (b) determine whether the intervention had an effect on interview performance and what preparation and response strategies in a structured interview seemed to be associated with performance, and (c) provide these benefits without negatively influencing validity and reliability of interview procedures, and if possible, enhance these psychometric characteristics. The information provided here can assist those who want to apply this type of intervention successfully in other selection settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The common practice in meta-analyses and in individual studies of correcting for direct range restriction even though range restriction is actually indirect has long been known to lead to undercorrection, but this error has been assumed to be small. Using validity generalization data sets for 4 jobs, this study calibrated this error by comparing meta-analysis results based on corrections for direct range restriction with the more accurate results from a recently developed method of correcting for indirect range restriction. It was found that, on average, correction for direct range restriction resulted in substantial underestimation of operational validities for both job performance measures (21%) and training performance measures (28%). In addition, 90% credibility values were on average underestimated by 38%–40%. In addition to the implications for personnel selection, these findings suggest that similar underestimation of important relationships has occurred in other areas of research, with potential implications for theory development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of education and experience minimum qualifications (MQs) is nearly ubiquitous in employment settings, yet it appears to be rare that such MQs are validated by the end user (either via content validity or criterion-related validation approaches). In this article, we present a method of content-validating MQs that is related to a procedure noted by , and we demonstrate the method's application for an upper-level management position in a state agency. Our procedure is based on adherence to the Uniform Guidelines and sound professional practice. In addition, the procedure was heard in a federal court proceeding (deposition and expert testimony in relation to 3 jobs), was approved by that court, and we discuss the court's findings. In particular, the court found, “The MQ development process used by the State Personnel Department (SPD) is consistent with the requirements of the Guidelines and leads to content-valid MQs.” Given data available to us for another job, we also show that the obtained MQs may result in less adverse impact than a previously determined, task-based set of MQs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A review by identified 15 elements of interview structure and made predictions regarding how applicants and interviewers might react to these elements. In this 2-sample field survey of 812 interviewees and 592 interviewers from over 502 organizations, interview structure was best described by 4 dimensions: (a) Questioning Consistency, (b) Evaluation Standardization, (c) Question Sophistication, and (d) Rapport Building. Interviewers with formal training and those with a selection rather than recruiting focus employed higher levels of interview structure. In addition, reactions to increased structure were mixed. Both higher structure (Question Sophistication) and lower structure (Rapport Building) were positively related to interviewer reactions. Less than 34% of interviewers had any formal interview training. However, interviewers were confident that they could identify the best candidates regardless of the amount of interview structure employed. Applicants reacted negatively to the increased perceived difficulty of structured interviews, but perceptions of procedural justice were not affected by interview structure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite a growing body of applied research on using the Internet for some human resource management practices, few studies have provided equivalence information or practical lessons concerning selection testing via the Internet. We identify several issues associated with measurement and validity, the role of several individual characteristics, respondents' reactions and behaviors, and other considerations concerning Internet test administration. We also report results from an exploratory study of the correlation between paper-and-pencil and Internet-administered cognitively oriented selection tests (including timed and untimed, proctored tests). Our empirical results suggest modest degrees of cross-mode equivalence for an untimed situational judgment test (r =.84) and for a timed cognitive ability test (r =.60). Further, some types of items (math, verbal, spatial) in the timed cognitive ability test seem to play a differential role in the reduced cross-mode equivalence. New issues regarding the perception of, and reaction to, items presented via the Internet are presented, and a variety of practical issues are derived and discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A simulation was used to explore the effects of variations in the rate at which applicants drop out of selection processes on racial differences in selection outcomes. Archival data was used to simulate a realistic range of selection scenarios in which test score differences between groups and selection ratios varied. The basis for dropping out was manipulated in two separate studies. Study 1 simulated dropout decisions that occurred at random within racial subgroups; in this study, dropout rates of minority versus White candidates were varied. Study 2 examined dropout decisions that occurred as a function of test scores. Results from both studies showed that mean test score differences between White and minority applicants have the largest influence on adverse impact. Interventions designed to reduce the tendency of minority applicants to withdraw from selection are likely to have, at best, small effects on the adverse impact of selection tests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An updated theoretical model of applicant reactions to selection procedures is proposed and tested using meta-analysis. Results from 86 independent samples (N = 48,750) indicated that applicants who hold positive perceptions about selection are more likely to view the organization favorably and report stronger intentions to accept job offers and recommend the employer to others. Applicant perceptions were positively correlated with actual and perceived performance on selection tools and with self-perceptions. The average correlation between applicant perceptions and gender, age, and ethnic background was near zero. Face validity and perceived predictive validity were strong predictors of many applicant perceptions including procedural justice, distributive justice, attitudes towards tests, and attitudes towards selection. Interviews and work samples were perceived more favorably than cognitive ability tests, which were perceived more favorably than personality inventories, honesty tests, biodata, and graphology. The discussion identifies remaining theoretical and methodological issues as well as directions for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An unanswered question in recruitment research is whether and how the media used to communicate recruitment messages influence important outcomes. Drawing from research and theory on persuasive communication and media richness and features, we propose and test a model of the effects of media and media features (amount of information, opportunities for 2-way communication, personal focus, social presence, symbolism) on communication outcomes (credibility and satisfaction), attitudes, intentions, and behavior associated with joining the organization. Results of an experiment with 989 undergraduate students show that a constant recruitment message delivered via different media (face-to-face, video, audio, text) influenced perceptions of features, and perceptions of features were related to important prehire outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relationship between college grade point average (GPA) and recruiters' initial screening decisions was examined using data from 548 job postings in a college recruitment program. Results indicate that in-major grade point average (GPA) is more strongly associated with screening decisions (ρ = 0.18, SD[subρ] = 0.200) than is overall GPA (ρ = 0.06, SD[subρ] = 0.187), but the magnitudes of the relationships varied across decision sets including a larger number of negative values than would be expected from sampling error alone. Subsequent examination of the bivariate data identified 6 different plot types suggesting that recruiters use a variety of GPA decision rules to initially screen applicants in college recruiting. The most common data plots found in 42% of the decision sets suggests that recruiters do not use GPA in screening decisions. But a surprising 81 of 548 decision sets indicated recruiters selected against applicants with high GPAs. Evidence that organizations recruiting for the same job produced different plot types suggests that the use of GPA data in initial screening decisions may be idiosyncratic to individual recruiters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This is an exploratory study that examined the possible application of the job component validity (JCV) model to identify potential employee selection instruments and to determine job requirement levels from O*NET job analysis data, following a research paradigm established with the Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ). Job requirements were measured by mean aptitude test scores on the General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB), and the ratings on the O*NET Generalized Work Activities (GWAs) were selected as representative O*NET job analysis data. Multiple correlation coefficients ranging from .35 to .89 were found when predicting mean GATB test scores from GWAS. Similar to JCV research some 30 years ago, predictions were strongest for cognitive aptitudes and weakest for manual dexterity. The data were examined under both rational and cross-validated empirical models. The results have positive implications for the development of a database that would support JCV estimates derived from O*NET job analysis data and allow practitioners to use O*NET data to help identify useful employee selection instruments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study uses national probability data from over 3,000 employers to examine why employers differ in their use of employee selection methods. Although the research on employee selection is voluminous, there have been only a handful of studies that look at the employers' selection decisions. In contrast to those other studies, we focus on characteristics of work as predictors of firms' decisions regarding selection practices. Beyond the relationship to the overall extent of selection methods used, we argue that specific work characteristics will affect the use of specific types of selection methods. We find, for example, that the greater the skill requirements of a position, the more likely that the establishment will use those types of selection methods that tap into the ability and skills of the applicants, namely, academic achievement and test performance. Discussion and suggestions for future research are offered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study adds a new marketing-based angle to the study of the attractiveness of organizations in the early stages of the recruitment process. Drawing on the instrumental-symbolic framework from the marketing literature, we expected that the meanings (in terms of inferred traits) that prospective applicants associate with employing organizations would play an important role in applicants' attractiveness to these organizations. Two groups of prospective applicants (275 final-year students and 124 bank employees) were drawn from the applicant population targeted by the bank industry. These applicants were asked to rate a randomly assigned bank in terms of job/organizational factors and to ascribe traits to this bank. In both samples, trait inferences about organizations accounted for incremental variance over job and organizational attributes in predicting an organization's perceived attractiveness as an employer. Moreover, it was easier to differentiate among organizations on the basis of trait inferences versus traditional job and organizational attributes. Practical implications for image audit and image management are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of decision makers' race and gender on promotion decisions about applicants of diverse race and gender for 51 top management positions in a cabinet-level U.S. federal department over a 12-year period were examined. Promotion decisions were made in a 2-stage process. First, a review panel decided which applicants to refer for the position. Second, the selecting official selected one of the referred applicants for the position. Overall, decisions by review panels of different race and gender composition and by selecting officials of different race and gender were to the advantage of female applicants and to the disadvantage of African American and Hispanic male applicants. These effects were not fully accounted for by race or gender differences in applicant qualifications, or by any of several theoretical explanations for the effects of race and gender on promotions to top management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The last major narrative review of the employment interview was published over 10 years ago. Since then, 278 studies have examined numerous aspects of the interview. This review summarizes and critically examines this recent research. A framework is developed that partitions research into social, cognitive, individual difference, measurement, and outcome factors. This organizing framework allows an examination of trends over time and facilitates identification of gaps in the empirical literature. Within each of these major factors, each research topic is identified, defined, and reviewed. For each topic, the results of the previous 3 narrative reviews are briefly summarized, recent research is reviewed and critiqued, and directions for future research are identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Explanations in the context of employment rejection letters were studied from the perspective of fairness theory (Folger & Cropanzano, 1998). In 2 scenario-based studies and 1 field experiment, Would Reducing explanations (i.e., explanations detailing qualifications of the individual who received the job), Should Reducing explanations (i.e., explanations of the appropriateness of the selection process), and Could Reducing explanations (i.e., explanations of external conditions that led to a hiring freeze) were systematically manipulated in communicating negative hiring decisions. Applicants' perceptions of fairness, recommendation intentions, and reapplication behavior were assessed. Results demonstrate strong support for the effectiveness of Would and Could Reducing explanations at reducing perceptions of unfairness and increasing recommendation intentions. In addition, applicants who received the Could Reducing explanation were more than twice as likely to reapply for a future position with the organization than those who received a standard rejection letter. A 3-way interaction among the 3 explanations suggests that 2 explanations may need to be combined in a rejection letter to generate the most positive effects. Findings are discussed from the perspective of fairness theory and practical implications are identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes research that fills a void in the applicant reactions literature by developing a comprehensive measure of Gilliland's (1993) procedural justice rules, called the Selection Procedural Justice Scale (SPJS). Five separate phases of scale development were conducted. In Phase 1 we generated and refined the items. For Phase 2 we reduced the items through exploratory factor analysis using data gathered from 330 applicants for the job of court officer and found higher-order factors consistent with Greenberg (1993a, 1993b). In Phase 3 we confirmed the factor structure using a separate sample of 242 applicants and trainees for the court officer job. In Phase 4 we assessed the initial convergent and divergent validity of the scale. In Phase 5 we tested the generalizability of these items in general and for those receiving positive and negative selection outcomes using 2 student samples. The results demonstrated the usefulness of the SPJS in differentiating each of Gilliland's procedural justice rules and relating them to outcomes included in his model of applicant reactions. A copy of the SPJS is included in the Appendix. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A particular form of test score banding, in which bands are based on the reliability of the test and in which selection within bands takes into account criteria that are likely to enhance workforce diversity, has been proposed as an alternative to the traditional top-down (rank-order) hiring systems, but it has been hotly debated among both scientists and practitioners. In a question-and-answer format, this article presents three different viewpoints (proponents, critics, and neutral observers) on the scientific, legal, and practical issues. The article also attempts to seek some consensus among experts on this controversial procedure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two studies were conducted to assess whether recruiters form distinguishable perceptions of applicant person-job (P-J) and person-organization (P-O) fit. The first study used repertory grid methodology with actual recruiters and mock applicants to demonstrate that knowledge, skills, and abilities are relied on more frequently to assess P-J fit, and values and personality traits more often to assess P-O fit. Study 2, which involved actual recruiters making decisions on applicants in a field setting, supported P-J and P-O fit perceptions as 2 discernable factors. Study 2 also found that both types of perceived fit offer unique prediction of hiring recommendations. Taken together, these results present compelling evidence that recruiters discriminate between applicants' P-J and P-O fit during early interviews. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the effects of two measures of fit on newcomers' commitment and turnover intentions, P-O fit and P-P fit. Newcomers preferences for organizational cultures were compared with supervisors' and peers' perceptions of organizational culture (P-O fit) and with their preferences for organizational culture (P-P fit). The supervisors and peers that were involved had been the newcomer's recruiters during the selection procedure and they had hired the newcomer. Subjects' culture preferences and perceptions yielded two dimensions of organizational culture: concern for people and concern for goal accomplishment. Results revealed that newcomers' concern for people P-P fit with their supervisor was related to organizational commitment and turnover intentions. P-O fit measures for both dimensions of organizational culture were not related to newcomer affective outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we provide a description of the development and pilot test of a computer-based testing procedure for the selection of secretarial applicants. The procedure requires secretaries to learn and use word processing, data base, and electronic message software to complete eight different job-related exercises. The procedure is designed to minimize the role of the test administrator, allow for easy transportability to other test sites, provide quick feedback to examinees, be fair to examinees who have used various kinds of computer hardware and software, and to allow for rapid and easy entry of test score data into a centralized computer network., In this paper, we provide a description of the development and pilot test of a computer-based testing procedure for the selection of secretarial applicants. The procedure requires secretaries to learn and use word processing, data base, and electronic message software to complete eight different job-related exercises. The procedure is designed to minimize the role of the test administrator, allow for easy transportability to other test sites, provide quick feedback to examinees, be fair to examinees who have used various kinds of computer hardware and software, and to allow for rapid and easy entry of test score data into a centralized computer network. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

Small firms employ half the U.S. private sector workforce, yet recruitment research has traditionally focused on large firms. The present study attempts to advance knowledge on how recruitment practices vary with firm size. Results suggest that the recruitment practices of larger firms are generally more formal and bureaucratic than those of smaller firms. In addition, the study demonstrates that many job seekers have distinct preferences regarding firm size, and that preferred firm size is related to job search behavior. Taken together, these findings suggest that firm size is an overlooked and important aspect of the recruitment/job search context. The processes involved in matching employers and applicants differ so much as a function of firm size that one might argue that large and small firms comprise separate labor markets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This prospective study investigated the validity of the Five-Factor Model (FFM) of personality and Holland's RIASEC vocational interest typology in predicting employment status and the nature of employment in a sample of graduating college seniors as they entered the job market. A sample of 934 senior college graduates enrolled in various academic subjects filled in Costa and McCrae's NEO-PI-R (1992) and Holland's Self-Directed Search (1979). One year after graduation, they were requested to describe their labor market positions and jobs, using the Position Classification Inventory (PCI; Gottfredson & Holland, 1991). Six hundred and twelve people responded to the second call, of whom 335 were employed and 66 unemployed. The incremental validity of the 2 models over and above each other was investigated in the sample of employed and unemployed subjects (N = 401) using stepwise regression analysis. The results showed that Extraversion and Conscientiousness were the only valid predictors of employment status and that vocational interests did not show incremental validity over and above these factors. The RIASEC types, however, were clearly superior in explaining the nature of employment, underscoring the validity of Holland's hexagonal calculus assumptions. Employment reflecting Realistic, Social and Enterprising characteristics was to a limited extent predicted by four of the Big Five, except Neuroticism, over and above the RIASEC types. The findings are discussed in the framework of Schneider's Attraction-Selection-Attrition (ASA) theory (1987) concluding that Holland's RIASEC model is more employee-driven, being better at predicting the nature of employment, whereas the FFM is more employer-oriented, with greater validity in evaluating the employability and employment status of applicants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A variety of recent articles in the personnel selection literature have used analyses of meta-analytically derived matrices to draw general conclusions for the field. The purpose of this article is to construct a matrix that incorporates as complete information as possible on the relationships among cognitive ability measures, three sets of alternative predictors, and job performance. We build upon a starting matrix used by Schmitt, Rodgers, Chan, Sheppard, and Jennings (1997). Mean differences, by race, for each of the measures and the potential for adverse impact of predictor composites are also considered. We demonstrate that the use of alternative predictors alone to predict job performance (in the absence of cognitive ability) lowers the potential for adverse impact. However, in contrast to recent claims, adverse impact continues to occur at many commonly used selection ratios. Future researchers are encouraged to use our matrix and to expand upon it as new primary research becomes available. We also report and reaffirm many methodological lessons along the way, including the many judgment calls that appear in an effort of this magnitude and a reminder that the field could benefit from even greater conceptual care regarding what is labeled an "alternative predictor." Directions for future meta-analyses and for future primary research activities are also derived. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]