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It has been established that the motion in depth of stimuli visible to both eyes may be signalled binocularly either by a change of disparity over time or by the difference in the velocity of the images projected on each retina, known as an interocular velocity difference. A two-interval forced-choice stereomotion speed discrimination experiment was performed on four participants to ascertain the relative speed of a persistent random dot stereogram (RDS) and a dynamic RDS undergoing directly approaching or receding motion in depth. While the persistent RDS pattern involved identical dot patterns translating in opposite directions in each eye, and hence included both changing disparity and interocular velocity difference cues, the dynamic RDS pattern (which contains no coherent monocular motion signals) specified motion in depth through changing disparity, but no motion through interocular velocity difference. Despite an interocular velocity difference speed signal of zero motion in depth, the dynamic RDS stimulus appeared to move more rapidly. These observations are consistent with a scheme in which cues that rely on coherent monocular motion signals (such as looming and the interocular velocity difference cue) are less influential in dynamic stimuli due to their lack of reliability (i.e., increased noise). While dynamic RDS stimuli may be relatively unaffected by the contributions of such cues when they signal that the stimulus did not move in depth, the persistent RDS stimulus may retain a significant and conflicting contribution from the looming cue, resulting in a lower perceived speed. DOI 10.2466/15.24.27.PMS.111.6.921-935

To measure activity during sleep, polysomnography and actigraphy are often used. The DynaPort MiniMod measures movement intensity and body position day and night. The goal was to examine the validity of the DynaPort MiniMod in assessing physical activity and body posture during sleep. In Study A, 10 healthy participants slept with the DynaPort MiniMod and the Actiwatch for one night. In Study B, 8 participants suspected of having Obstructive Sleep Apnoea Syndrome slept for one night with the DynaPort MiniMod and underwent complete polysomnography as part of the typical care protocol. In Study A, there was a significant moderate correlation (r = .70) between the movement scores of the Actiwatch and the DynaPort MiniMod. In Study B, a high intraclass correlation (r = .84) between body posture scores of the DynaPort MiniMod and the polysomnography position sensor was observed. The DynaPort MiniMod is a valid measurement device for physical activity during sleep. DOI 10.2466/03.15.PMS.111.6.936-946

The aim of this study was to examine physiological, perceptual, and affective responses during self-paced walking for three age groups. 66 adult women were assigned into three groups by age: 20-25 yr. (n = 22), 30-35 yr. (n = 22), and 40-45 yr. (n = 22). Each participant completed a maximal exercise test and a 20-min. bout of walking at a self-selected pace. The preferred walking speed was similar for all age groups, whereas physiological responses relative to maximal and ventilatory threshold values were greater in the 40-45 yr. group than the other two groups. Nevertheless, perceptual and affective responses were similar for all age groups. These findings suggest that physiological responses, but not perceptual and affective responses, of sedentary women are associated with age during walking at a self-selected pace. DOI 10.2466/06.10.13.PMS.111.6.963-978

This study investigates the efficacy of intermediate penalty kickers by comparing the effect of applying an automated WiFi system on the field of play to simulate a strategy that takes account of goalkeeper action (dependent) with another for which goalkeeper strategy is irrelevant (independent). Intermediate penalty kickers (n = 12) took a pretreatment test of 32 kicks in a 'real-play' situation with intermediate goalkeepers (n = 3). Two groups of kickers underwent 11 treatment sessions using different strategies and then were administered a posttreatment test. The variables measured were the number of goals scored, whether the direction of the shot was the same or different from the direction of the goalkeeper's move (DDG), ball speed, and the duration of the kicking movement. Data suggested the goalkeepers had a greater capacity to identify advance cues when faced with independent strategy kickers and that dependent strategy kickers achieved lower ball speeds. DOI 10.2466/05.23.24.27.PMS.111.6.947-962

The effect of practice variations on spatial and temporal accuracy was investigated in both discrete and continuous aiming movements in the preferred hand of college-aged participants (N=25). In a completely within-subject design, participants made rapid reversal movements with a lightweight lever in the sagittal plane, practicing 20[degrees] and 60[degrees] movements in repeated (same distance) and alternating (switching between 20[degrees] and 60[degrees]) conditions. Movements were also made one at a time (discretely) or in sequences of 20 movements (continuously). Spatial constant error, spatial variable error, spatial overall error, the coefficient of variation, movement time, and the relative timing were calculated for each set of 20 movements and analyzed by within-subject analyses of variance. Movements in the repeated conditions for both discrete and continuous movements were more accurate and consistent compared to the alternating condition where the short movements were overshot and the long movements were undershot. Discrete movements were more spatially and temporally variable than continuous movements. The discrete and continuous movements showed different relative timing patterns, suggesting that the temporal structure of the motor program is affected by task characteristics. DOI 10.2466/22.24.25.PMS.111.6.901-917

Relations between duration judgments and verbal or visual working memory, between duration judgments and effect of learning to plan the processing of information about such judgments were investigated. A computer monitor was used to present images of two cars traveling in the same direction for various durations and distances. Participants (N = 30) were asked to identify the car that had traveled for the longer duration. Then, participants learned how to solve Piagetian tasks logically. After the learning, they tried to solve the duration judgments task again. Finally, their verbal and visual working memory capacities were assessed. Results indicated the following: (a) numbers of correct answers on the Piagetian tasks were correlated with verbal and visual working memory capacity; (b) the correlations did not significantly decrease after the participants learned how to solve the Piagetian tasks. DOI 10.2466/04.10.22.PMS.111.6.863-871

Correctly integrating sensory information across different modalities is a vital task, yet there are illusions which cause the incorrect localization of multisensory stimuli. A common example of these phenomena is the 'ventriloquism effect.' In this illusion, the localization of auditory signals is biased by the presence of visual stimuli. For instance, when a light and sound are simultaneously presented, observers may erroneously locate the sound closer to the light than its actual position. While this phenomenon has been studied extensively in azimuth at a single depth, little is known about the interactions of stimuli at different depth planes. In the current experiment, virtual acoustics and stereo-image displays were used to test the integration of visual and auditory signals across azimuth and depth. The results suggest that greater variability in the localization of sounds in depth may lead to a greater bias from visual stimuli in depth than in azimuth. These results offer interesting implications for understanding multisensory integration. DOI 10.2466/22.24.27.PMS.111.6.872-892

Strategies for finding one's way through an unfamiliar environment may be helped by 2D maps, 3D virtual environments, or other navigation aids. The relative effectiveness of aids was investigated. Experiments were conducted in a large, park-like environment. 24 participants (12 men, 12 women; age range = 2250 years; M = 32, SD = 7.4) were divided into three groups of four individuals, who explored a 2D map of a given route prior to navigation, received a silent guided tour by means of an interactive virtual representation, or acquired direct experience of the real route through a silent guided tour. Participants then had to find the same route again on their own. 12 observers were given a 'simple' route with only one critical turn, and the other 12 a 'complex' route with six critical turns. Compared to three people familiar with the routes, among the naive participants, those who had a direct experience prior to navigation all found their way again on the simple and complex routes. Those who had explored the interactive virtual environment were unable to find their way on the complex route. The relative scale representation in the virtual environment may have given incorrect impressions of relative distances between objects along the itinerary, rendering important landmark information useless. DOI 10.2466/04.22.23.27.PMS.111.6.829-847

To identify sex differences in volleyball game-related statistics, the game-related statistics of several World Championships in 2007 (N = 132) were analyzed using the software VIS from the International Volleyball Federation. Discriminant analysis was used to identify the game-related statistics which better discriminated performances by sex. Analysis yielded an emphasis on fault serves (SC =-.40), shot spikes (SC = .40), and reception digs (SC = .31). Specific robust numbers represent that considerable variability was evident in the game-related statistics profile, as men's volleyball games were better associated with terminal actions (errors of service), and women's volleyball games were characterized by continuous actions (in defense and attack). These differences may be related to the anthropometric and physiological differences between women and men and their influence on performance profiles. DOI 10.2466/05.11.25.PMS.111.6.893-900

Visual simple reaction time (SRT) scores measured in 31 college students of both sexes by use of the simplest chronoscope methodology (meterstick SRT) were compared to scores obtained by use of an electromechanical multi-choice reaction timer (machine SRT). Four hypotheses were tested. Results indicated that the previous mean value of meterstick SRT was replicated; meterstick SRT was significantly faster than long-standing population estimates of mean SRT; and machine SRT was significantly slower than the same long-standing mean SRT estimates for the population. Also, the mean meterstick SRT of 181 msec. was significantly faster than the mean machine SRT of 294 msec. It was theorized that differential visual information processing occurred such that the dorsal visual stream subserved meterstick SRT; whereas the ventral visual stream subserved machine SRT. DOI 10.2466/03.15.25.PMS.111.6.819-828

Previous research concluded that Triple Iron ultra-triathletes were close to runners in anthropometry. We assessed similarities in anthropometry between 64 Triple Iron triathletes who competed over 11.4 km swimming, 540 km cycling, and 126 km running versus 95 100-km ultra-marathoners. Variables of anthropometry such as body mass, body height, length and circumferences of limbs, skin-folds and body fat, and training such as volume and speed were compared between ultra-triathletes and ultra-runners. The Triple Iron triathletes completed their race distance within 2,811 min. (SD=379) and the 100-km ultra-marathoners within 691 min. (SD = 117). Triathletes were younger, had higher body mass, shorter legs, higher circumference of upper arm and thigh, lower sum of skin-folds, and lower percent body fat compared to runners. Weekly training volume was higher for triathletes, and weekly hours in running and weekly kilometres in running were higher for runners. In the Triple Iron ultra-triathletes, the sum of eight skin-folds correlated to total race time. The circumference of upper arm, the sum of eight skin-folds, and percent body fat correlated with time in the running section .42, .47, and .43, respectively. In the 100-km ultra-marathoners, the sum of eight skin-folds, the skin-fold thickness of thigh, percent body fat, weekly running hours, and weekly running kilometres correlated with race time .55, .40, .56, -.50, and -.51, respectively. However, in the triathletes, none of these training variables was significantly correlated with race time. In the ultra-marathoners, the sum of eight skin-folds, the skin-fold thickness of thigh, percent body fat, weekly running kilometres, and speed in running during training were related to race time (correlations of .55, .40, -.28, and -.51, respectively). Overall, the ultra-triathletes were not similar to ultra-runners in their anthropometric measures and training variables. DOI 10.2466/05.25.PMS.111.6.805-818

This investigation examined the validity of newly developed Adult OMNI Elliptical Ergometer Ratings of Perceived Exertion Scales. 60 men and women performed a graded exercise test on an elliptical ergometer. Oxygen consumption (V[O.sub.2]), heart rate (HR), and ratings of perceived exertion were recorded at each stage from the Borg 15 Category scale and two different OMNI scales. One scale employed an elliptical ergometer format of the OMNI Picture System of Perceived Exertion. The second scale modified verbal, numerical, and pictorial descriptors at the low end of the response range. Concurrent and construct validity were established by the positive relation between ratings of perceived exertion from each OMNI scale with V[O.sub.2], HR, and Borg scale ratings of perceived exertion (men, r= .94-.97; women, r = .93-.98). Validity was established for both OMNI scales, indicating either metric can be used to estimate ratings of perceived exertion during partial weight-bearing exercise. DOI 10.2466/05.06.PMS.111.6.848-862

A white disk presented inside a small concentric circle (a display like the Delboeuf figure) looks lighter than when inside a larger one. The magnitude of the effect was measured with 20 observers (10 women, 10 men; ages 19 to 26 years). The decrements in luminance of the disk inside the smaller circle, in order to match the lightness of the disk inside the larger circle, are reported for three different grey backgrounds and correspond to 9.13, 10.33, and 10.46%. DOI 10.2466/24.27.PMS.111.6.799-804

This study examined the relations of physical education teachers' burnout with some individual variables, including teachers' self-perceived physical fitness and the perceived influence of personal fitness on teaching. Participants were 219 Italian physical education teachers in secondary school. Demographic and professional information, ratings of self-perception of physical condition, and the Italian version of the Maslach Burnout Inventory were recorded. Compared to the data of a normative sample, average scores on the three dimensions of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (Emotional Exhaustion, Depersonalisation, and Reduced Personal Accomplishment) were found. There were statistically significant associations among Reduced Personal Accomplishment, the self-perception of physical fitness, and the perception of the influence of personal fitness on teaching. Women reported scores on Emotional Exhaustion and Reduced Personal Accomplishment indicative of greater severity than men. No significant differences appeared to be related to the years of teaching. Recommendations for further studies are discussed. DOI 10.2466/06.07.11.14.PMS.111.6.790-798

Neural plasticity of pitch processing mechanisms at the human brainstem, as reflected by the scalp-recorded frequency-following response (FFR) to voice pitch, has been reported for normal-hearing adults. Characteristics and maturation of such a response during the first year of life have remained unclear. The purpose of this study was to examine the characteristics of FFR to voice pitch in normal-hearing infants and to make a direct comparison with adults using the same stimulus and recording parameters. 9 infants and 9 adults were recruited. A Chinese monosyllable that mimics the English vowel/i/with a rising pitch was used to elicit the FFR to voice pitch. The results demonstrated that infant FFRs showed slightly larger Pitch Strength but comparable Frequency Error, Slope Error, and Tracking Accuracy to those obtained from adults. Early maturation of FFRs was also observed in the infants starting from 1 to 3 mo. of age. DOI 10.2466/10.22.24.PMS.111.6.765-784

98 undergraduates (54 men, 44 women) participated in an experiment to examine whether having an artificially furrowed brow would have an effect on participants' subjective impression of perceived targets. An elastic adhesive bandage was either stretched to create furrows on the brow when it retracted, or not stretched so as to avoid creating wrinkles. While wearing the bandages, the participants rated their impressions of neutral targets preceded by agreeable, disagreeable, or neutral primes in a modified Affect Misattribution Procedure. The results showed that participants with artificially furrowed brows tended to rate the neutral targets preceded by agreeable primes less favorably than did the control participants, while both groups rated similarly the targets preceded by disagreeable primes. DOI 10.2466/02.07.24.PMS.111.6.785-789

The effect of explicitly providing goalkeeper's movement advanced cue to the kicker during a real penalty kick task was assessed. 32 expert soccer players (M age=23.2 yr.), who were divided into four groups: an experimental group, a discovery group, a placebo group, and a control group, participated. Rate of success in the task was assessed, as well as goals, decision times, and ball flight times. Providing an advance cue significantly improved the players' rate of success relative to players without the advance cue; this difference was still present after I and 7 days without training. The experimental group adapted better to the time range within which the response could be effective, while the discovery group showed adaptations. Explicit instructions about the advance cues available from goalkeepers' actions before the dive during practice can improve penalty kick performance. DOI 10.2466/05.24.25.PMS.111.6.749-760

A hand-grip dynamometer was used to assess the magnitude and prevalence of grip strength impairments among 41 home-care patients with diverse diagnoses (e.g., stroke, cancer, fracture, osteoarthritis). Based on published reference values, patients (as a whole) were weaker than normal for age and sex. The prevalence of weakness was 85.4% on one or the other side and 70.7% on both sides. Considering the prognostic importance of grip strength, this study emphasized the potential value of its measurement in a home-care population. DOI 10.2466/03.10.15.PMS.111.6.761-764

The aim of the current study was to investigate the validity and reliability of goal orientation and self-efficacy scales. The scales were administered to 264 university students (154 from engineering departments, 110 from business administration). Two samples were used. In the first sample, the original factor model was tested with confirmatory factor analysis. In the second sample, the Turkish versions of the scales were factor analyzed. Principal components analysis resulted in three components for the Goal Orientation scale: Learning goal orientation, Performance-prove goal orientation, and Performance-avoid goal orientation. The Self-efficacy scale had one factor as expected. Cronbach's alpha coefficients were satisfactory. The results did not fully support the use of current Turkish versions of the scales. Results of the studies are discussed along with the strengths and limitations of the study and suggestions for further development of the scales. DOI 10.2466/07.08.14.20.PMS.111.6.735-748

The aim of the study was to analyze electromechanical delay in a ballistic movement of the superior limb. 10 male karate athletes and 9 nonathletes (without karate experience) performed a motor skill as fast and powerfully as possible, with impact on a makiwara (karate training instrument). For each participant, 10 choku-zuki performances were analyzed. Kinematics and surface electromyographic (EMG) activity of the anterior and posterior portions of deltoid, pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi, triceps brachii, and biceps brachii were recorded. Athletes had significantly shorter delay in arm flexion agonist muscles and significantly higher delay in arm flexion antagonist muscles and in forearm extension agonists. Results suggest that enhanced performance in athletes was mainly due to motor learning. DOI 10.2466/05.25.PMS.111.6.722-734

A study was designed to examine the effect of the appearance of the requester within one of the variants of the foot-in-the-door paradigm, that is, the foot-in-the-door with implicit demand described by Uranowitz in 1975. A confederate (Black vs Blanc vs Beur) approached the participant in a park and presented a small request. Three steps further, the confederate 'accidentally' dropped 30 sheets of paper. Whether or not the participant helped the confederate in retrieving the dropped pamphlets was recorded as the implicit dependent variable. The foot-in-the-door effect was observed solely when the requester was Blanc. This result shows that the foot-in-the-door effect is not as strong as the literature suggests and undermines the usual interpretations of the foot-in-the-door effect in terms of self-perception and commitment. DOI 10.2466/07.17.PMS.111.6.694-700

This preliminary study examined the factor structure of the Beliefs About Language Learning Inventory in two samples of about 750 college students of English as a foreign language in Taiwan. Results of confirmatory factor analysis lend partial support to Horwitz's theoretical five-factor belief model. Subsequent exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of data show that a four-factor model represented by only 12 items performed better than other models both theoretically and empirically. This model consists of two dimensions already theorized in the inventory: Difficulty of Language Learning and Foreign Language Aptitude, and two newly interpreted dimensions, Importance of Spoken Language and Analytical Approaches to Language Learning. Although this four-factor model could be replicated in an independent sample, the factors are not reliable, suggesting the need to search for a more representative set of beliefs to tap specific aspects of language learning. DOI 10.2466/03.08.11.28.PMS.111.6.707-721

In 169 male 100-km ultra-marathoners, the variables of anthropometry, training, and prerace experience, in order to predict race time, were investigated. In the bivariate analysis, age (r = .24), body mass (r=.20), Body Mass Index (r = .29), circumference of upper arm (r = .26), percent body fat (r = .45), mean weekly running hours (r=-.21), mean weekly running kilometers (r=-.43), mean speed in training (r=-.56), personal best time in a marathon (r=.65), the number of finished 100-km ultra-runs (r = .24), and the personal best time in a 100-km ultra-run (r=.72) were associated with race time. Stepwise multiple regression showed that training speed (p DOI 10.2466/05.25.PMS.111.6.681-693

The purpose of this study was to examine the quantity and type of sporting activities undertaken by young Portuguese basketball players in early stages of athletic development. 750 basketball players aged between 12 and 16 years served as participants, grouped by sex and competitive level. The Skilled group comprised players representing the 9 highly ranked regional teams (n = 378) while the Less-skilled group comprised the players representing the remaining 9 regional teams (n = 372). All the participants filled out a previously validated questionnaire based on retrospective information linked to the training activities experienced throughout their involvement in sport. Results suggest that the majority of the players started practicing sports preferentially between 6 and 10 years. However, a significant number of players reported a later start, between 11 and 14 years of age. The pattern of sport involvement confirmed important divergences in the path reported by the players by the team's competitive level. The major findings of this study confirmed that players representing the highly ranked teams demonstrated a tendency to extend their training activities during longer periods during the week and throughout each season. DOI 10.2466/05.10.PMS.111.6.669-680

Retention of a skill was estimated after using a training device to assist in correcting the use of chopsticks. Simulated food-serving tasks (pulling, pinching, and moving tasks) were administered twice with a l-too, interval. The current work was based on 22 of 30 persons who had practiced the use of the scissor-pinching technique with chopsticks. A control group of 22 who typically used the pincers-pinching technique was also recruited for comparison. Analysis showed l-too, retention of skill at the pincers-pinching technique using three measures, since no difference in performance between the groups was noted. DOI 10.2466/23.25.PMS.111.6.701-706

An experiment was conducted to investigate the persistence of the effect of 'bandwidth knowledge of results (KR)' manipulated during the learning phase of performing a manual force-control task. The experiment consisted of two phases, an acquisition phase with the goal of maintaining 60% maximum force in 30 trials, and a second phase with the objective of maintaining 40% of maximum force in 20 further trials. There were four bandwidths of KR: when performance error exceeded 5, 10, or 15% of the target, and a control group (0% bandwidth). Analysis showed that 5, 10, and 15% bandwidth led to better performance than 0% bandwidth KR at the beginning of the second phase and persisted during the extended trials. DOI 10.2466/23.25.PMS.111.6.643-652

The purpose of this study was to investigate the association between selected skin-fold thicknesses and training variables with a half-marathon race time, for both male and female recreational runners, using bi-and multivariate analysis. In 52 men, two skin-fold thicknesses (abdominal and calf) were significantly and positively correlated with race time; whereas in 15 women, five (pectoral, mid-axilla, subscapular, abdominal, and suprailiac) showed positive and significant relations with total race time. In men, the mean weekly running distance, minimum distance run per week, maximum distance run per week, mean weekly hours of running, number of running training sessions per week, and mean speed of the training sessions were significantly and negatively related to total race time, but not in women. Interaction analyses suggested that race time was more strongly associated with anthropometry in women than men. Race time for the women was independently associated with the sum of eight skin-folds; but for the men, only the mean speed during training sessions was independently associated. Skin-fold thicknesses and training variables in these groups were differently related to race time according to their sex. DOI 10.2466/05.25.PMS.111.6.653-668

The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of various levels of alcohol consumption on human response to auditory and visual stimuli in terms of reaction time, movement time, total reaction time, and error rate. Placebo level and three low-level alcohol doses were randomly assigned to 20 male university student volunteers. 30 min. after consuming the alcohol or placebo, participants responded to either auditory or visual stimuli. Total reaction time increased significantly at the mid-low dose of alcohol (0.3 g/kg). For alcohol doses less than .5 g/kg, the change in total reaction time was confined to reaction time, i.e., the processing time between onset of stimulus and onset of movement. Effects of alcohol were significantly more pronounced in the choice-type tests. Notably, the effects of alcohol on total reaction time and error rate were significant for auditory but not visual stimuli. DOI 10.2466/13.15.18.22.PMS.111.5.589-607

Cardiac patients with depression have shown altered autonomic nervous system functioning, expressed as reduced heart rate variability. This may be associated with poorer physical fitness and less physical activity among depressed patients. These relationships were explored among patients enrolled in outpatient cardiac rehabilitation. 22 depressed and 22 nondepressed patients, matched for sex and age, were assessed at enrollment. The Beck Depression Inventory and structured interviews were used to measure depression. Patients completed ambulatory monitoring of ECG (i.e., Holter) and physical activity, as well as a treadmill stress test. Depression was associated with several measures of heart rate variability. Activity and fitness were lower among the depressed patients. Although exploratory, accounting for activity and fitness attenuated the relationship between depression and heart rate variability. This suggests that altered fitness and activity may help explain altered autonomic tone that characterizes patients with cardiovascular diseases who ate psychologically depressed. DOI 10.2466/13.15.PMS.111.5.608-624

Individuals' intentions of adopting physical activity as part of their lifestyle changed after university physical education courses in Korea. Male students (N=264) taking physical education courses at a university in Korea were tested on the first and last day of a semester using a physical activity adherence questionnaire. The results showed that the intention to continue physical activity increased after taking the courses. DOI 10.2466/06.11.13.PMS.111.5.458-462

The relationships between gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, life satisfaction, and male-female suicide ratio were analyzed for 25 industrialized countries. GDP per capita was the strongest correlate of male-female suicide ratio even when life satisfaction was controlled using partial correlations. Life satisfaction correlated significantly with GDP per capita but not with suicide rates. DOI 10.2466/12.13.17.PMS.111.5.433-436

The possibility of enabling two adults with acquired brain injury and profound multiple disabilities to use microswitch-based technology to attain preferred environmental stimuli on their own was assessed. Each of the participants was provided with two microswitches that could be activated by right and left head-turning or head-bending responses. The microswitches were introduced sequentially according to a multiple probe design across microswitches (responses) and allowed access to different sets of auditory or visual stimuli. Eventually, the two microswitches were made available simultaneously. Sessions lasted 5 min. Each participant learned to use the two microswitches successfully and maintained consistent levels of responding when they were simultaneously available. During this phase, both participants showed large within-session variations in their right and left response frequencies, with one of them showing an overall prevalence of the left-side response. The importance of assistive technology within programs for persons with acquired brain injury and multiple disabilities is discussed. DOI 10.2466/15.17.23.PMS.111.5.485-495

Academic delay of gratification refers to the postponement of immediate rewards by students and the pursuit of more important, temporally remote academic goals. A path model was designed to identify the causal relationships among academic delay of gratification and motivation, self-regulated learning strategies (as specified in the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire), and grades among 386 Chinese elementary school children. Academic delay of gratification was found to be positively related to motivation and metacognition. Cognitive strategy, resource management, and grades mediated these two factors and were indirectly related to academic delay of gratification. DOI 10.2466/10.11.20.PMS.111.5.631-642

The attachment styles and parental bonding by 64 patients (M age=43.2 yr., SD= 13.3) with Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) were compared with those of 64 patients (M age = 42.2 yr., SD = 13.5) with Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) and 126 Healthy participants (M age = 42.2 yr., SD = 12.1). Analysis of scores on the Attachment Style Questionnaire indicated insecure attachment in both the patient and control groups. The Parental Bonding scores indicated perceptions of Affectionless Control by parents in both patient groups. In particular, the mean Father-Protection subscale scores were significantly higher for in the GERD group than in the Healthy and IBD groups. DOI 10.2466/02.09.15.21.PMS.111.5.625-630

Ankle inversion injuries are common, yet little is known about the error associated with different positions as inversion depth increases. In this study, absolute judgments made without feedback were used to measure discrimination of different extents of ankle inversion which arose from active movements made to physical stops by 20 self-reported right side-dominant participants. Testing was conducted over three sets of five inversion depths that were within a range of 1.4 degrees and centered around mean depths of 8, 11, and 14o. Discrimination of ankle inversion movements decreased linearly with depths of movement further into inversion, both within and across the sets of inversion depths. Thus, error in assessing movement position increased with inversion depth. Inversion movements that were made with the left foot were significantly better discriminated at all depths than those made with the right foot. DOI 10.2466/06.25.26.PMS.111.5.475-484

To assess test-retest reliability scores on 16 balance tests of 21 individuals with Down syndrome whose ages ranged from 5 to 31 yr., participants performed a standing test on firm and soft surfaces with the eyes open and closed, the balance subset of the Bruininks--Oseretsky test, full turn, timed-up-and-go test, forward reach, and sit-to-stand. Each participant completed all 16 tests twice in one day and then again on a subsequent day for a total of 4 sessions. The interclass reliability correlation coefficients (ICC) value for each measure of balance varied considerably by age and sex. Based on having an ICC > .50, only 3 tests were reliable in young males and young females, whereas 5 tests could reliably be used in adult females and 9 tests could reliably be used in adult males. The results of this study raise suspicions as to the reliability of tests commonly used to assess balance and differences in reliability due to age and sex. Results of balance tests should be interpreted with caution in males and females with Down syndrome across the age span. DOI 10.2466/03.10.15.25.PMS.111.5.530-542

The goal was to investigate a potential causal pat-tern between the motives of sport spectators and team identification by using a cross-lagged panel design. Questionnaires were completed by 229 participants at the beginning and end of one NCAA (National Collegiate Athletic Association) college football season for 4 mo. in the USA. The questionnaire included three items for each motive (Social Interaction and Entertainment), three items measuring team identification, and demographic items. The relation of Entertainment at Time 1 to team identification at Time 2 was larger than the relation of team identification at Time 1 to Entertainment at Time 2. This suggests that the motivation of Entertainment may lead to the formation of team identification more than team identification leads to Entertainment. However, the motive of Social Interaction did not show the same pattern. As results of this study suggested some spectator sport motives might lead to identification with a team, the hypothesis that all motives would be the basis of team identification might not be correct. DOI 10.2466/05.07.PMS. 111.5.576-588

Among 75 college students, response frequency from the Rorschach correlated significantly at .21 with Alternate Uses and at .20 with Match Problems (measures of divergent thinking), but not significantly (r = .07) with the Questionnaire (a self-report measure of flexibility) from the Test of Behavioral Rigidity. Contrary to hypothesis, the Active-Passive Movement Ratio from the Comprehensive System did not correlate significantly with any of these tests (r = .04-.11). Whereas Response Frequency can be seen as another reflection of ideational fluency of productivity, as long has been speculated, the conceptual and empirical links between flexibility and the ratio of active to passive movement are dubious. DOI 10.2466/02.03.04.09.PMS.111.5.559-575

This paper presents a pool of Spanish sentences designed for use in cognitive research and speech processing in circumstances in which the effects of context are relevant. These lists of sentences are divided into six lists of 25 equivalent high-predictability sentences and six lists of 25 low-predictability sentences according to the extent to which the last word can be predicted by the preceding context. These lists were also equivalent in phonetic content, length and frequency of the last word. These lists are intended for use in psycholinguistic research with Spanish-speaking listeners. DOI 10.2466/28.PMS.111.5.517-529

A driving simulator was used to examine the effects on driving performance of auditory cues in an in-vehicle information search task. Drivers' distraction by the search tasks was measured on a peripheral detection task. The difficulty of the search task was systematically varied to test the distraction caused by a quantified visual load. 58 participants completed the task. Performance on both search tasks and peripheral detection tasks was measured by mean response time and percent error. Analyses indicated that in-vehicle information search performance can be severely degraded when a target is located within a group of diverse distractors. Inclusion of an auditory cue in the visual search increased the mean response time as a result of a change in modality from auditory to visual. Inclusion of such an auditory cue seemed to influence distraction as measured by performance on the peripheral detection task; accuracy was lower when auditory cues were provided, and responses were slower when no auditory cues were provided. Distraction by the auditory cue varied according to the difficulty of the search task. DOI 10.2466/03.13.20.24.26.PMS.111.5.503-516

Underlying auditory processes in speech perception were explored. Specifically of interest were the stages of auditory processing involved in the integration of dynamic information in nontraditional speech cues such as the virtual formant transitions. These signals utilize intensity ratio cues and changes in spectral center-of-gravity (instead of the actual formant frequency transitions) to produce perceived F3 glides. 6 men and 8 women (M age =24.2 yr., SD=2.1), recruited through posted materials from graduate students at The Ohio State University, participated in two experiments. The results for frequency-based formant transitions (Exp. 1 ) indicated that spectral cues to syllable identification are combined at more central levels of auditory processing. However, when the components of the virtual formant stimuli were divided between the ears in a dichotic listening task (Exp. 2), the results indicated that auditory spectral integration may occur above the auditory periphery but at stages more intermediate rather than central. DOI 10.2466/10.15.24.27.PMS.111.5.543-558

Three key points of the sit-to-stand (STS) movement were confirmed as aspects of the ground reaction force (GRF): the onset, maximum GRF, and seat-off. 46 healthy subjects (M age = 22.2 yr., SD = 4.4) participated. During the STS movement, two vertical force platforms were used to measure the resultant GRF, defined as the whole-body force, and its two components, the but-tock and leg GRFs. The onsets of the component GRFs identified the sequence of the important time points in the STS movement more precisely than the onset of the resultant GRF. Data showed that the maximum whole-body GRF, the maximum GRF of both legs, and seat-off appeared in sequence and not simultaneously. DOI 10.2466/10.15.26.PMS.111.5.496-502

The aim of the present study was to assess whether physical characteristics, training, or prerace experience were related to performance in recreational male Ironman triathletes using bi- and multivariate analysis. 83 male recreational triathletes who volunteered to participate in the study (M age 41.5 yr., SD = 8.9) had a mean body height of 1.80 m (SD=0.06), mean body mass of 77.3 kg (SD=8.9), and mean Body Mass Index of 23.7 kg/[m.sup.2] (SD =2.1) at the 2009 IRONMAN SWITZERLAND competition. Speed in running during training, personal best marathon time, and personal best time in an Olympic distance triathlon were related to the Ironman race time. These three variables explained 64% of the variance in Ironman race time. Personal best marathon time was significantly and positively related to the run split time in the Ironman race. Faster running while training and both a fast personal best time in a marathon and in an Olympic distance triathlon were associated with a fast Ironman race time. DOI 10.2466/05.25.PMS.111.5.437-446

The present study tested a trans-contextual model based on self-determination theory of the relations between motivation in physical education, motivation in leisure-time physical activity, physical activity, and psychological well-being. Participants were 329 Norwegian upper secondary school students (M age = 16.5 yr., SD = 0.7). Students' perceptions of autonomy-supportive teachers in physical education were expected to be positively associated with students' psychological needs satisfaction in physical education, which was expected to be positively related to autonomous motivation for physical education participation. In turn, autonomous motivation for physical education was expected to be positively associated with perceived competence and autonomous motivation for leisure-time physical activity, which both were expected to be positively associated with leisure-time physical activity and psychological well-being in general. Structural equation models and bootstrapping supported the hypotheses and the indirect links between variables. Sex differences indicate that more research is needed on how to motivate girls to be more physically active in leisure time. DOI 10.2466/06.10.11.13.14.PMS.111.5.407-432

The ordinary gain score, g, is defined as g=[x.sub.2] - [x.sub.1], where [x.sub.1] is the pretest score and [x.sub.2] is the posttest score. The present study extends and refines previous research on the reliability and validity of gain scores. Using particular values as stated in the tables and graphs, the pre-and posttest reliabilities, pre- and posttest validities, ratios of pretest to posttest standard deviations, and correlations between the pretest and posttest were varied systematically to examine the effects of these parameter configurations on gain scores' reliability and validity. Results plotted graphically provide insight via visual interpretation not easily inferred using only values from a table. One interesting finding was that the reliability of a gain score can be at a maximum when the validity is at a minimum. Another is that a high correlation between pre- and posttest was beneficial to the validity of the gain score but detrimental to its reliability. By identifying the situations in which gain scores can be reliable and valid, findings inform researchers when gain scores should or should not be used. DOI 10.2466/03.PMS.111.5.399-406

Preschoolers' knowledge of the appearance of proper names was tested in three experiments with 25 boys and 22 girls from low-income families. Children from a Head Start program, whose parents signed a permission letter, participated. Their ages ranged from 3 yr. 6 mo. to 5 yr. 6 mo. (M=52.2 mo., SD=4.9). When shown consonant-vowel-consonant trigrams such as Rit or baF or dEg with various capitalization patterns, the children showed a tendency to recognize that CVC trigrams with the first letter capitalized or all letters capitalized were the ones most likely to representa person's name. When their own names were substituted, which typically contained more than three letters, their performance was markedly better. Children also had a strong tendency to consider trigrams of Latin letters as more likely to be a person's name than trigrams of non-Latin characters (e.g., Sanskrit). DOI 10.2466/10.11.28.PMS.111.5.447-457

The relationship of anthropometric and training characteristics with race time were investigated in 39 male and 24 female open-water ultra-endurance swimmers in a 26.4 km open-water ultra-swim, using bi- and multivariate analyses. For the men, body height, Body Mass Index, length of arm, and swimming speed during training were related to race time in the bivariate analysis. For the women, swimming speed during training was associated with performance in the bivariate analysis. In the multivariate analysis for the men, Body Mass Index and swimming speed during training were related to race time. DOI 10.2466/05.25.PMS.111.5.463-474

The validity of rating of perceived exertion (RPE) in predicting lactate threshold during an incremental test was analyzed in 15 men with type 2 diabetes (M age=53.4 yr., SD=12.9). Blood glucose, lactate, and minute ventilation (VE)/V[O.sub.2] responses identified the lactate, ventilatory, and glucose thresholds. Workloads (W) corresponding to RPEs 12, 13, 14, and 15 were determined. Second-order polynomials fit to VE/W and [lac]/W ratios corresponding to RPEs of 9-10, 12-13, and 16-17 also identified workloads above which there was an overproportional increase in VE and [lac]. These workload breakpoints did not differ, although at RPE 12 underestimated and at RPE 15 overestimated lactate threshold. RPE 13 and 14 and the responses of VE/W and [lac]/W to submaximal exercise accurately predicted lactate threshold. DOI 10.2466/06.13.15.27.PMS.111.5.365-378

Previous research on numerosity judgments addressed attended items, while the present research addresses underestimation for unattended items in visual search tasks. One potential cause of underestimation for unattended items is that estimates of quantity may depend on viewing a large portion of the display within foveal vision. Another theory follows from the occupancy model: estimating quantity of items in greater proximity to one another increases the likelihood of an underestimation error. Three experimental manipulations addressed aspects of underestimation for unattended items: the size of the distracters, the distance of the target from fixation, and whether items were clustered together. Results suggested that the underestimation effect for unattended items was best explained within a Gestalt grouping framework. DOI 10.2466/04.22.24.27.PMS.111.5.379-398

The objective was to estimate the duration of the effects of aerobic exercise on mood. Healthy men (n = 13) and women (n =35) ages 18 to 25 years (M=20.2, SD=3.4) were randomly assigned to either a control or exercise group. Participants completed the Profile of Mood States before, after, and at 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, and 24 hours following either exercise at 60% V[O.sub.2] peak or quiet rest. Repeated-measures analysis of covariance was utilized with V[O.sub.2] peak entered as a covariate. The exercise group showed significantly lower total mood disturbance immediately after and at 4, 8, and 12 hours following exercise. DOI 10.2466/02.06.13.15.PMS.111.5.333-342