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Although consistency of handedness (the strength of dominant hand preference) is increasingly recognized as an important individual difference, there are questions about how to best measure it. A recent meta-analysis showed that researchers have often failed to report details of responses and response formats to handedness test items. In addition to measuring handedness direction (i.e., left versus right handedness), there can be utility to dichotomizing the Edinburgh Handedness Inventory (EHI) into consistent and inconsistent dominant handedness, despite controversy over the best means of doing so. In this study, we performed a discriminant function analysis of EHI items to determine which items best predicted handedness consistency versus handedness direction. Although the same discriminant function accounted for most of the variance for both dependent measures, writing and drawing EHI items were the strongest predictors of handedness direction and combing and opening jars items were the strongest predictors of handedness consistency. As different items on the EHI predicted these different handedness dimensions, we discuss the implications of dichotomizing EHI items into both relevant dimensions for both biological and environmental theories of the basis of handedness and for future handedness research.

Recent research has shown that the perception of biological motion may be influenced by aspects of the observer’s personality. In this study, we sought to determine how participant characteristics (including demographics, response inhibition, autism spectrum quotient, empathy, social anxiety, and motion imagery) might influence the use of form and motion to identify the actor’s sex in biological motion displays. We varied the degree of form and motion in biological motion displays and correlated 76 young adult participants’ performances for identifying the actor’s sex in these varied conditions with their individual differences on variables of interest. Differences in the separate use of form and motion cues were predictive of participant performance generally, with use of form most predictive of performance. Female participants relied primarily on form information, while male participants relied primarily on motion information. Participants less able to visualize movement tended to be better at using form information in the biological motion task. Overall, our findings suggest that similar group level performances across participants in identifying the sex of the actor in a biological motion task may result from quite different individual processing.

The relationship between individual differences in Emotional Intelligence (EI) and self-reported arousal from remembering an autobiographical emotional or neutral event was examined. Participants ( N = 235; 75 men; M age = 18.7 yr., SD = 0.9, range = 18–22) were required to complete the Japanese version of the Emotional Skills and Competence Questionnaire to assess EI. Participants were then asked to recall personal episodes from autobiographical memory, and then completed the Memory Characteristics Questionnaire (MCQ). A group with high EI-rated, emotionally neutral episodes higher than did a group with low EI on several MCQ subscales: sound, participants, overall memory, and doubt/certainty. However, differences in ratings between the two groups were not observed for emotionally positive episodes. These results suggest that high EI is related to more effective use of weak retrieval cues when recalling neutral autobiographical memories.

Often it is difficult to find a natural explanation as to why a surprising coincidence occurs. In attempting to find one, people may be inclined to accept paranormal explanations. The objective of this study was to investigate whether people with a lower threshold for being surprised by coincidences have a greater propensity to become believers compared to those with a higher threshold. Participants were exposed to artificial coincidences, which were formally defined as less or more probable, and were asked to provide remarkability ratings. Paranormal belief was measured by the Australian Sheep-Goat Scale. An analysis of the remarkability ratings revealed a significant interaction effect between Sheep-Goat score and type of coincidence, suggesting that people with lower thresholds of surprise, when experiencing coincidences, harbor higher paranormal belief than those with a higher threshold. The theoretical aspects of these findings were discussed.

Data from a sample of 83 elected community leaders and 391 direct-report staffers (resulting in 306 useable leader-member dyads) were used to test relations between self-other rating agreement of leadership and member-reported leader-member exchange (LMX). Results of polynomial regression analysis indicated that the self-other rating agreement model was not significantly related to member-reported LMX. Instead, virtually all of the variance in member-reported LMX was accounted for by others' ratings.

This study examined relations of achievement goals of writers who are speakers of English as a foreign language (EFL), the frequency of their writing strategy use, and the quality of their writing from a multiple goals perspective. The goal profiles of 57 EFL college students with similar writing proficiency were based on rating items of an unpublished scale; Group 1 had strong mastery and strong performance–approach goals, and two groups included students with only one strong mastery (Group 2) or performance (Group 3) goal. Think-aloud protocols indicated that the participants adopted 21 strategies in an argumentative writing task, classified into five categories. Group 1 was found to use writing strategies of monitoring or evaluating, revising, and compensating significantly more often than the other two groups, and produced better essays. Strong mastery and performance-approach goals might be beneficial for EFL college writers.

An important area of study has examined cognitive aspects of Morningness–Eveningness orientation. Optimal times of efficiency in participants classified as Morning and Evening types are of great importance for understanding their cognitive abilities. The present review covers the last two decades (1990–2009), during which the important review by Tankova, Adan, and Buela-Casal appeared, and focuses particularly on attention, memory, and executive functions.

Many studies have shown that language anxiety is correlated negatively with language competence. This study tests the hypothesis that second language learners' listening anxiety might be reduced when listening skills improve. Building on previous research showing that extensive reading is as effective and efficient as formal instruction in acquiring English as a foreign language and is even more effective with longer treatment duration, changes in listening anxiety were explored under two different instructional approaches—extensive listening and formal instruction—over a 1-yr. period in a sample of 92 Chinese college students. Listening anxiety and listening comprehension tests were administered to the participants before and after the experiment. Analysis showed that the Extensive Listening group improved more compared to the Formal Instruction group in listening competence, but their mean anxiety score also rose significantly. Factors contributing to the unexpected outcome indicate that the increase in anxiety should be considered facilitative to learning.

The Worth Index was administered to 176 Division I athletes who were competing in team and individual sports at Brigham Young University. The purpose of the study was to measure and compare their perceptions of worth and self-esteem. The Worth Index is a valid tool measuring whether an individual believes worth and self-esteem are earned by way of performance (conditional) or are inherent (unconditional). The Worth Index measures perceptions of basic human worth and worth as related to personal security, performance, and the physical self. The four subscales represent these four categories. There were no significant differences between the perceptions of athletes in team and individual sports on any of the subscales of the Worth Index. However, on each subscale, all participants combined rated themselves significantly higher on unconditional worth than conditional worth.

The influence of the Big Five factors on the fit between demands and abilities in soccer was examined for school and boarding home domains for newcomer trainees of soccer academies. 81 male trainees from 4 academies participated in the survey ( M age = 16.3 yr., SD = 1.1). The fit between demands and abilities was measured three times during the academic year. In each domain, three repeated measures were aggregated into a single composite measure to define the fit index in the soccer, school, and boarding home domains. Results from the NEO Personality Inventory-Revised revealed that Neuroticism and Conscientiousness were, respectively, negatively and positively correlated with the school and boarding home fit index, Extraversion was negatively related to the boarding home fit index, and no personality factors were related to the soccer fit index. Stepwise regression analyses showed that Conscientiousness was the strongest predictor of the school and boarding home fit indexes. The individual differences approach to predict the success of newcomer trainees of soccer academies is discussed.

Levinson defined spatial frame of reference systems into three types and found that people who spoke different languages all over the world had different habits in the use of these systems. Some quasi-experimental designed research in China suggested that Chinese people in various areas had different preferences for frame of reference systems in nonlinguistic spatial tasks. In this study, a newly designed and strictly controlled laboratory experiment was conducted to measure performance on linguistic spatial tasks. Response times of two groups of participants, respectively selected from the north (10 men and 12 women; M age = 24 yr., SD = 4) and south (11 men and 12 women; M age = 24 yr., SD = 3) of China, were compared on processing of spatial terms used in different systems: absolute (e.g., east) versus relative (e.g., right). To reduce the effect of living experience, the Northern participants with less than 4 yr. living experience in the south of China were included, and vice versa. Analysis showed that Southerners, but not Northerners, differed in response times to terms between absolute and relative systems. This finding suggests that speed of processing spatial terms differs among people who speak the uniform language Mandarin but live in geographically distinct home areas in China and use different frame of reference systems.

The current study investigated the relationship between Dynavision scores for 36 men and 52 women ( M age = 20.5 yr.) and performance on six conventional psychomotor tests which presumably tap similar psychomotor abilities and visuomotor skills. Analysis indicated that initial Dynavision performance was significantly correlated with performance on these common psychomotor tests. These data extend findings that propose the effectiveness of the Dynavision apparatus to assess performance on basic visual-motor and visual-cognitive functions. Taken together with these new results, findings suggest that this apparatus might contribute to psychomotor assessment and may be potentially useful for effective selection and identification of individual differences in human behavioral performance.

Two exploratory studies examined ratings of the severity of violence of several behaviors. In Study 1, a very consistent ordering of the behaviors by severity was obtained from two groups of participants. The stated justification for the behaviors was manipulated, and both mitigation and aggravation effects were observed. Study 2 found that essentially the same ordering of behaviors could be obtained in a provocation-rating task, and that both the severity ratings and the provocation ratings yielded four interpretable types of violence upon factor analysis: more severe physical (V1), less severe physical (V2), more severe nonphysical (V3), and less severe nonphysical (V4). Individual profiles of severity ratings across these four types yielded two interpretable groupings of participants upon cluster analysis: a violence-sensitive group and a violence-tolerant group. The violence-tolerant group had lower severity ratings for three of the four types of violence. These empirical distinctions help to illuminate what appear to be different meanings of the term violent for different behavior categories and for different individuals.

Locus of control, self-control, and family income were investigated as possible predictors of 138 young children's mathematics and science scores. The children, 60 boys and 78 girls, ranging from 4 to 8 years of age ( M = 5.4, SD=1.3) were administered the Stephens-Delys Reinforcement Contingency Interview Scale, the Self-control Rating Scale, the Comprehensive Mathematics Inventory, and a science test based on the work of D. K. Dickinson. Analysis showed mathematics scores were positively related to income, locus of control, and science scores. Mathematics and science scores were negatively related to lack of self-control. Also, science scores were positively related to locus of control. Multiple regression analysis with mathematics as the dependent variable indicated income had the greatest predictive value followed by self-control and locus of control. The multiple regression model of science was also significant, with locus of control having the greatest influence followed by self-control.

This research assessed whether public space users will adopt a least-effort approach and choose a less suitable seat nearby or seek the most suitable seat, even if it is farther away from them when the decision is made. How distance assessment affects seat choice was investigated through an observational survey, which allowed the identification of behavioral patterns. Those behavioral patterns were then tested in a paired comparison experiment with 40 participants. The results showed that the effect of distance on seat choice is related to the difference in distance between the options and that a sufficient difference can cause trade-offs between distance and seat properties. The necessary difference in distance is conditioned by the activity and the seat properties.

Understanding the relationship between affect and exercise is helpful in predicting human behavior with respect to exercise participation. The goals of the present study were to investigate individual differences in affective response during and after exercise and to identify the role of intrinsic motivation in affective changes. 30 active male college students ( M age = 21.4yr.) who regularly participated in sports activities volunteered to answer a questionnaire measuring intrinsic motivation toward running activities and performed a 20-min. straight running protocol at heavy intensity (about 70% of VO2max). Participants' affective responses were measured every 5 min. from the beginning of the run to 10 min. after completing the run. Latent curve model analysis indicated that individuals experienced different changes in affective state during exercise, moderated by intrinsic motivation. Higher intrinsic motivation was associated with more positive affect during exercise. There were no significant individual differences in the positive tendency of the participants' affective responses after exercise over time. Intrinsic motivation seems to facilitate positive feelings during exercise and encourages participation in exercise.

Effects of interior office color and individual stimulus screening ability, i.e., instinctive perceptual filtering of irrelevant stimuli, on perceived performance and job satisfaction were examined on various outcome measures over a 4-day work week in a laboratory setting. Workers performed specific tasks and worked regular hours for 4 consecutive days in the same office. They were separated into three groups according to their ability to ignore irrelevant stimuli in the interior space. Those in the white and predominantly blue-green offices reported higher perceived job performance and satisfaction than those in the predominantly red office regardless of stimulus screening ability. Workers with high to moderate stimulus screening ability indicated greater perceived performance and job satisfaction than did workers with low stimulus screening ability. Results for color schemes are discussed in terms of preference and social expectations.

The present study examined the relationship between aggression and players' names on uniforms in collegiate women's ice hockey. Aggression was defined as mean penalty minutes per game. Information, i.e., win/loss record, penalties, and names on uniforms, about the 2002–2003 season women's ice hockey team was obtained via e-mail from 53 of 72 (74% return rate) sports information directors (Division I = 23, Division II = 2, Division III = 28). Analysis indicated that teams with personalized jerseys had significantly more penalty minutes per game than teams without personalized jerseys. However, as the majority of the teams with personalized jerseys were Division I teams and the majority of the teams without personalized jerseys were Division III teams, it is unclear whether results were due to personalized jersey or competition level of play.

A field experiment was focused on whether participants' sex and targets' perceived need influenced helping behavior. Confederates approached 332 (166 women, 166 men) same-sex participants in a supermarket and asked for 25 cents to help purchase one of three randomly assigned food items: milk which was defined as a high-need item, frozen cookie dough which served as a low-need item, or alcohol, which was a low-need item with negative social connotations. The dependent variable was whether a participant provided help. Participants' sex was not associated with helping behavior as equal proportions of men and women provided assistance to the confederate; however, perceived need strongly influenced whether the confederate received help. Specifically, the high-need item produced more helping behavior than did either of the low-need items, and the socially acceptable low-need item of cookie dough produced more helping behavior than the socially unacceptable low-need item of alcohol. This may be interpreted as showing that what one buys and how deserving of help one appears to be influence whether one is helped by others.

Present purposes were to examine the characteristics of controlled force exertion in 28 developmentally delayed young people (14 men, 14 women), and sex differences compared to 28 normal young students (14 men, 14 women). The subjects matched their submaximal grip strength to changing demand values displayed in a bar chart on the display of a personal computer. The total sum of the differences between the demand value and grip exertion value for 25 sec. was used as an evaluation parameter for the test. The controlled force exertion was significantly poorer for the developmentally delayed group than for controls, and there were large individual differences. The developmentally delayed men scored poorer than women in coordination. Like the controls, the means between trials did not decrease significantly. For these developmentally delayed subjects, performance did not improve after only a few trials. The controlled force-exertion test is useful as a voluntary movement-function test for developmentally delayed subjects.

This study examined the validity of the Sport Orientation Questionnaire (Competitiveness: 13 items, Win Orientation: 6 items, and Goal Orientation: 6 items) in a sample of 195 wheelchair basketball athletes from the USA. Following evidence for sample-specific validity, the measurement model that underlies the questionnaire was examined. A short-form with 15 items for three factors of Competitiveness (7 items), Win Orientation (5 items) and Goal Orientation (3 items) fit the data (χ2/ df ratio = 2.21, NNFI = .892, CFI = .991, RCFI = .935, SRMR = .058, RMSEA = .071). To evaluate the findings further, we cross-validated the short-form by sex. Structural equation modeling indicated there were similar measurement properties and factor structures for the men and women, indicating similar conceptualization of sport orientations. Meaningful comparisons across sex may be undertaken, since both men and women who are wheelchair basketball athletes perceive the three short-form SOQ factors similarly.

Researchers have suggested that task performance is often dependent upon the congruence of cognitive style and task. To explore this suggestion, 44 female and 4 male undergraduates were administered the Cognitive Style Analysis, the Closure Flexibility, the Composite Gestalt Completion Test, and the Vocabulary subtest from the WAIS. Specifically, four hypotheses were tested: (1) that participants with an analytic style will perform better than those with a wholistic style on the Closure Flexibility; (2) that participants with a wholistic style will perform better than those with an analytic style on the Composite Gestalt Completion Test; (3) that participants with an intermediate style will outperform persons with an analytic style on the Composite Gestalt Completion Test; and (4) that intermediate scorers would perform better than those with a wholistic style on Closure Flexibility. Only the second hypothesis was supported, so results provide only minimal support for the effect of match or mismatch of cognitive style and task performance.

This study explored the effects of display characteristics such as target/background color combination, single/simultaneous presentation, and individual differences by sex, and design specialty on preferences of VDT icon design. The results indicated black targets (black-on-white, black-on-yellow) and black backgrounds (red-on-black, yellow-on-black) were the most popular and white targets (white-on-red, white-on-black) and white backgrounds (blue-on-white, red-on-white) were the second most popular. As for the chromatic color combinations, yellow-on-blue was the most favored. Subjects rated color combinations under single presentation higher than those under simultaneous presentation. Women rated purplish targets and rated purplish and blue backgrounds higher than men. Subjects with design background favored black more either as a target or background, but they favored turquoise less than those without design background.

In this preliminary investigation of variability of responses on the Lüscher Color Test, subjects were 567 volunteers administered the test twice with a 10-min. interval between them. Two hypotheses were tested: (a) that variability of responses attests to the personality of the respondent (tested by the relations of variability and MMPI scale scores), and (b) variability of responses is based on learning the test's content. As such, men's scores should be more variable than women's. Analysis showed that variability was not correlated with scores for personality on the MMPI scales. Men's scores are more variable than women's, but only until age 45.

This field-based study examined the action of reinvesting in controlled processing on 14 univerity soccer players to assess skill breakdown under pressure. Based on scores on the Reinvestment Scale of Masters, Polman, and Hammond, two experimental groups of participants were inferred to be dispositionally High or Low in Reinvestment. They performed a wall-volley soccer task, which involved kicking a ball repeatedly against a wall target zone for 90 sec. as defined by McMorris, Gibbs, Palmer, Payne, and Torpey in a High and Low Stress environment Prior to each condition performers were required to complete the Anxiety Rating Scale. A series of two-way (reinvestment × stress) analyses of variance with repeated measures on stress were conducted on the Anxiety and soccer scores. Players scoring High on the Reinvestment Scale reported significantly greater Intensity for Somatic Anxiety and lower Self-confidence than players who scored Low in the High Stress condition. Anxiety Direction scores indicated players scoring High on the Reinvestment Scale reported their increase in Somatic Anxiety and reduction in Self-confidence in the High Stress condition to be significantly more debilitating of performance than players who scored Low on the Reinvestment Scale. Soccer scores indicated players scoring High on the Reinvestment Scale were more prone to reinvesting in controlled processing and essentially experiencing greater decreases in performance under pressure than those Low in Reinvestment. Therefore, these findings support the predictive power of the Reinvestment Scale.

An archival study sampled personality test protocols with spontaneous handwriting specimens from 73 men and 168 women for signatures and scores on selected scales from the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2. Judges applied a 5-point scale to sort signatures for tidiness. Interrater agreement was .93. The mean handwriting tidiness score for men was 1.8 and 2.8 for women, a significant difference of 1 point. Correlations between handwriting tidiness and MMPI–2 scores did not support the hypothesis that erratic handwriting is associated with pathology but scores for gender role correlated significantly with handwriting tidiness. Masculine Gender Role predicted sloppy penmanship and Feminine Gender Role predicted tidy writing, independent of the writers' biological sex.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the psychological repercussions of transition out of elite sport from a bodily point of view. We hypothesized that the passage from a bodily over-investment to a more sedentary state would have an effect on body satisfaction. 16 Transitioning Athletes following the Sydney Olympic Games were compared with 16 Active Athletes two times during the transition period using the Body-Image Questionnaire of Bruchon-Schweitzer. Qualitative data in the form of interviews provided a complement to the quantitative data. Analysis yielded no significant differences 1 1/2 mo. after career termination between the two groups but showed a decrease in body satisfaction between 1 1/2 and 5 mo. after career termination for Transitioning Athletes, with a significant between-group difference at 5 mo. The Transitioning Athletes initially reported weight gain and uncertainty about their real physical capacities but also a continued social recognition that maintained body satisfaction. Over time, however, they were increasingly aware of this bodily deterioration, as ongoing exercise served as a reality test. Added to this were perceived decreases in social value as well as disturbing somatic manifestations. The result was a substantial effect on body satisfaction.

Evaluation of different properties of words and the relations among them is of value for understanding languages and as a basis for research. In the present study we investigated relations among interest value, familiarity, and meaningfulness of words. We also investigated the relations of these properties with imagery, concreteness, emotionality, frequency, date of entry into the language, word length, and amplitude of skin conductance response. A total of 85 university students received a list of 25 word pairs, each pair comprised of a concrete and an abstract noun with related meanings, e.g., “friend” and “friendship,” and rated the interest value, familiarity, and meaningfulness of each word. Familiarity correlated significantly with meaningfulness and interest value.

Differences in assessment and classification procedures of many mixed-handedness studies have made comparison of findings difficult. In the present study, “narrow” and “broad” definitions of mixed-handedness were investigated using the Annett Handedness Questionnaire in patients with schizophrenia ( n = 68), panic disorder ( n = 62), borderline personality disorder ( n = 35), heroin addiction ( n = 54), and mental retardation ( n = 33) in comparison with 944 controls. According to the “narrow” definition of mixed-handedness, an excess of mixed-handedness was observed in patients with borderline personality disorder and mental retardation. An excess of nonmixed-handedness was found in patients with panic disorder. According to the “broad” definition of mixed-handedness, an excess of mixed-handedness was observed in patients with mental retardation, in the total sample of psychiatric patients ( n = 252), and in the schizophrenic patients. Thus, we can conclude that different mixed-handedness definitions can be associated with different results. Furthermore, we suggest that the neurotic part of the present psychopathology spectrum tends to be related to an excess of normal or nonmixed-handedness, and the psychotic as well as the organic portion is associated with an excess of mixed-handedness. regardless of the definition of mixed-handedness used.

We investigated postural movement associated with bilateral arm flexion in response to a light signal during standing in 179 healthy men and women to assess whether individual and sex differences are evident in the postural movement pattern. The following results were obtained, (a) A correlation of −.87 was noted between movement angles of the foot-leg and leg trunk, (b) Individual differences in movement angle were approximately twice as large in the hip joint as in the ankle and knee joints, and the movement angle of the leg trunk showed approximately half the number of extension as flexion movements, (c) The postural movement pattern was categorized on the basis of the movement angle of the foot-leg and leg-trunk into the following three patterns: hip flexion, backward leaning, and hip extension. The percentages of subjects showing these patterns were 59.2%, 33.5%, and 7.3%, respectively. (d) The inclination angle reflecting the righting response showed a gradual increase in size in the order of trunk, head, and neck. However, the righting response was not controlled precisely enough to enable subjects to maintain the inclination angle in a quiet standing posture, (e) We identified a significant sex difference in the relative frequency of subjects in the postural movement pattern.

49 participants, adapted to using contact lenses, completed a battery of psychological tests to examine differences between persons who were successful in wearing monovision lenses for presbyopia and those who were unsuccessful. Although visual performance and requirements strongly affect participants' satisfaction with monovision lenses, personality characteristics and visual processing styles appear to influence the percentage of full-time wear. Of the participants, 41% (20 of 49) ultimately rejected monovision for a variety of both visual and psychological reasons. Sex differences were evidenced in the psychological variables correlated to monovision lens wear. Analysis indicated that men scoring as introverts rejected monovision while women with difficulty perceiving a visual pattern against visual background noise had difficulty adapting to monovision and exhibited shorter wearing times.

Results were combined from 5 experiments by Cook in 1998 with 728 participants who listened to one male voice and one female voice each saying a sentence, then attempted to recognise the voices from line-ups of six voices presented a week later. While 352 male listeners did not differ significantly in recognising female and male voices (38% correct vs 41%), 376 female listeners were significantly more likely to recognise female than male voices (51% vs 43% correct). There was no evidence for individual differences in voice recognition in that listeners who recognised the male voice were no more likely to recognise the female voice than those who failed to recognise the male voice.

Event-related brain potentials (ERPs) were elicited with auditory stimuli from normal subjects every 10 min. for 10 successive trial blocks to assess ultradian influences on the P300 component. Based on a theoretical analysis of the underlying relationship between background EEG activity and P300 variability, subjects were divided into two groups according to whether P300 amplitude increased or decreased initially over trial blocks. P300 amplitude habituated across trial blocks. P300 latency produced systematic cyclical variation with approximately a 90-min period that was opposite in phase for the different subject groups. The findings suggest that ultradian rhythms contribute to P300 latency variability. The implications o the results for P300 in applied settings are discussed.

Understanding how objects are represented in early visual processing is a critical issue for models of vision. Current models can be distinguished in terms of the assumptions made about the basic features of vision and the processes involved in the combination of these basic features (Essock, 1992; Treisman, 1993; WoIfe, 1994). The analysis of the nature of object representation and the implications of the psychological stimulus for "later" processing of visual information have received considerable attention. Garner (1974) proposed a theoretical framework which described distinctions in separable and integral stimulus structure based on speeded sorting, classification, and similarity-scahg tasks. Separable stimd, e.g., circle size and angle of radial he, were described as objects which were processed in terms of independent dimensions. Converging tasks demonstrated that the dimensions of separable stimuh did not interact; adults could successfully selectively attend to dimensional components and ignore variations of irrelevant dimensions, and redundant dimensional information did not affect processing. In contrast, the dimensions of integral stimuli, e.g., hue and brightness, were processed as fused unitary objects; variations of irrelevant dimensions interfered with processing, and the addition of redundant information fachtated processing (see Garner, 1974). Callaghan. (1984; Callahan, Lasaga, Garner, 1986) adapted Garner's

Two age- and education-matched groups of 45 women, respectively, with the diagnoses of Bulimia and of Temporo-mandibular Joint Disorder, were administered the Serial Color-Word Test, to assess differences in the pattern of adaptation to conflict (the latter being represented by the Stroop task). Three types of norms (clinical, nonclinical and based on reading times) and the functions derived from a previous cluster analysis were employed. Comparisons utilizing clinical norms and cluster analytical functions did not significantly differentiate between groups. According to both nonclinical norms and norms based on reading rimes, the two clinical groups were significantly different concerning the distribution of adaptation patterns. Bulimic patients resorted more often to the Dissociative pattern (high nonlinear change of reading times), while temporomandibular patients were characterized by the Cumulative pattern (high linear change) and, secondarily, by the Cumulative-Dissociative pattern (high linear and nonlinear change). Intergroup differences were more marked when employing the new norms based on reading times.

The psychometric properties of Richardson's 1977 Verbalizer-Visual-izer Questionnaire have been studied by analyzing papers in which this questionnaire was employed. Such review showed that the Verbalizer-Visualizer Questionnaire does not measure a unidimensional construct and does not predict the actual use of mental imagery in thinking. Further, a lack of long-term reliability of the questionnaire emerged. In conclusion, use of the questionnaire to assess the verbal-visual cognitive style appears questionable.

The present study examined the general emotional content of dreams reported by individuals who typically experience “positive” versus “negative” dreams. Self-reports of the 153 participants indicated that positive versus negative dreamers ( ns = 42 and 24, respectively) generally experienced more positive emotions, e.g., joviality, self-assurance, and fewer negative emotions, e.g., fear, sadness. No differences were found in the self-reports of the participants in the experience of surprise, guilt, fatigue, and shyness between the groups, hence, positive and negative dreams do not appear to reflect simply more positive and fewer negative emotions, respectively.

A laboratory study investigated the effect of circadian orientation on consumers' emotional state at different times of day. Subjects' emotional state was measured using the Pleasure-Arousal-Dominance scale in the morning and in the evening. Individual circadian orientation (morningness-eveningness) was also assessed. Analyses showed that changes in consumers' emotional state as a function of the time of the day is moderated by individual differences in circadian orientation. Morning-types were in a more pleasurable emotional state in the morning than in the evening. The predicted reversed pattern for the evening-types did not reach significance. Null effects were reported for the arousal and submissive/dominance dimensions of emotional state. Morning-types rated themselves as more awake than evening-types. Morning-types were more awake in the morning than in the evening and vice-versa for evening-types. The magnitude of the differences between evening-type and morning-type individuals was significant in the morning. Findings are discussed from methodological, theoretical, and marketing perspectives.

The relation between car-following behaviour and braking performance was studied in a driving simulator. The theoretical perspective was that individual differences in tactical car-driving behaviour may be related to skills on the operational level of the driving task via a process of adaptation. In a sample of 16 young and middle-aged experienced drivers independent assessments were made of preferred time headway during car following and of braking skill. Starting from modern theories of visual-motor learning, braking performance was analyzed in terms of a reaction time component, an open-loop visual-motor component, and a closed-loop visual-motor component involving the precise adjustment of braking (timing and force) to the situation. The efficiency of the visual-motor component of braking was a strong and significant predictor of choice of time headway to the lead vehicle in such a way that less efficient braking indicated a preference for a longer time headway. This result supports the theory of adaptation on the individual level.

This annotated bibliography of 25 papers represents a careful search of the periodical literature on the learning styles of medical students from 1975 to 1995, including the Chical Medicine series of Current Contents weekly. Computer databases included Medline, ERIC, and Psychological Abstracts, using the key phrases learning styles, cognitive styles, and mehcal students as well as names of specific inventories used to measure individual styles, e.g., the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Kolb's Learning Style Inventory. In selecting entries for the bibliography, we chose those articles that have received the most attention in the literature over the past twenty years

In two studies, students answered questions about their earliest memories from childhood and either elementary school and high school or college and yesterday. Visual sensory impressions were present in all childhood and almost all later memories. Sound aspects were more frequent in memories from high school and college than in those from childhood. Earliest memories from yesterday almost always included internal sensations. Recollections were rated as more accurate, complete, and verbalizable as events occurred later in life. Memories from childhood, elementary, and high school were thought about, found useful, or shared equally frequently. Yesterday's events were less likely shared, but, if shared, enhanced social relationships.

A new approximation, an alternative to the cosine function, was used to analyze body temperature throughout the day. The model studied is a two-term function characterized by three parameters that describe the temperature rise and fall. In contrast to other cyclic functions, this function can easily model complete cycles as well as segments of a cycle. This function has been applied to temperature series validating the dimension of morningness-eveningness throughout the day and also to studies that include body temperature, personality factors, and the dimension of morningness throughout a complete circadian period.

The relationship between the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Gregorc Style Delineator, and achievement was examined by administering these instruments to 259 first-year nursing students enrolled in an introductory human anatomy and physiology course. A principal component factor analysis using a varimax rotation of the scores from the two psychometric instruments, achievement examinations, and an over-all grade point average indicated that each learning style from the Gregorc Style Delineator corresponds to certain traits on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. An individual who had a preference for the learning style of Concrete Sequential tended to have the traits of sensing and judging on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, while an individual who used the learning style of Concrete Random tended to have the traits of intuition and perceiving on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. One who had a preference for the learning style of Abstract Sequential tended to use the trait of thinking while another who used the learning style of Abstract Random tended to have the trait of feeling. The factor analysis also indicates no relationship of any scores of the traits on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator or learning styles of the Gregore Style Delineator with the examination scores achieved in the human anatomy and physiology course or to the students' over-all grade point average. However, factor analysis indicates that the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator traits of Judging vs Perceiving collapsed into the Sensing vs Intuition scale, and that the Gregore Style Delineator consists of two bipolar scales that are different from those proposed by Gregorc.

Rice Universify Summary.-Warm-up decrement and reminiscence effects have been primarily attributed to mechods of distribution of practice. The present study investigated the effects of di€€erent amounts of practice on a balancing task and observed the Merences in individual learning Subjects were randomly assigned to a 5- or 10-trial practice group and performed a retention session on a stabilometer 1 wk. after the First set of trials. Subjects were given the same amount of rest between trials and sessions. Following the retention session subjects were assigned by retention performance into a warm-up decrement or reminiscence group for further comparison. The group with more practice had higher over-all performance. The warm-up decrement group showed more rime-on-balance during the first practice session than the reminiscence group. The second session performance curves were nearly identical for the 5- and the 10trial groups whether warm-up decrement or reminiscence occurred. These results suggested the importance of considering individual dkferences in retention of learning.

The aim of the present work was to test some of the criteria for automaticity of spatial-location coding claimed by Hasher and Zacks, particularly individual differences (as intelligence invariance) and effortful encoding strategies. Two groups of subjects, 15 with mental retardation (Down Syndrome, mean chronological age, 20.9 yr.; mean mental age, 11.6 yr.) and 15 normal children (mean age, 11.5 yr.), were administered four kinds of stimuli (pictures, concrete words, nonsense pictures, and abstract words) at one location on a card. Subsequently, subjects were presented the items on the card's centre and were required to place the items in their original locations. Analysis indicated that those with Down Syndrome scored lower than normal children on the four tasks and that stimuli were better or worse remembered according to their characteristics, e.g., their imaginability. Results do not support some of the conditions claimed to be necessary criteria for automaticity in the recall of spatial locations as stated by Hasher and Zacks.

The color-word Stroop task requires an individual to ignore one piece of information (word) while responding to another (color). Since self-monitors are good at adapting their responses to fir a situation and those high in need for cognition carefully think through information before responding, this study explored the relationship between self-monitoring and need for cognition using Stroop interference. It was anticipated that self-monitoring would reduce Stroop interference, while need for cognition would increase Stroop interference. 23 General Psychology students (10 men, 13 women, Mage = 18.8 yr.) participated. Participants were given the Self-monitoring Scale, the Need for Cognition Scale, and the Stroop Color-Word Test. Analysis indicated that Need for Cognition was not correlated with Stroop interference ( r = .31) but higher scores on Self-monitoring were correlated with lower Stroop interference ( r = .43), Implications for research are suggested.

For a closed-book examination, study strategies that could promote deep processing correlated positively with scores but were not likely to be used by the 46 students. For an open-book, open-note examination, strategies that might have led to confusion regarding the locations of material in the textbook and lecture notes correlated negatively with scores, although they were not likely to be used by the 58 students.