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Chrysomya bezziana is an obligate, myiasis-causing fly in humans and warm-blooded animals throughout the tropical and subtropical Old World. We report a case of cutaneous myiasis due to C. bezziana in a dog from Guangxi province in China. A total of 35 maggots were removed from the lesions. Direct sequencing of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene showed that the specimen belonged to haplotype CB_bezz02, which was previously reported in Malaysia and the Gulf region. This paper also reviews reported cases of screwworm myiasis from humans and animals in China. Geographical records indicate that the distribution of C. bezziana is expanding, suggesting that an integrated pest management control should be taken into consideration in China.

Maggot debridement therapy (MDT) is an application of sterile laboratory-reared blow fly larvae to remove necrotic tissue and disinfect wounds for medical conditions. For effective application, the blow fly larvae used in the wound treatment are required to be in aseptic condition. Here, we report the results of a detailed assessment of bacteria and fungi isolated from the eggs of two blow fly species, Chrysomya megacephala (F.) and Lucilia cuprina (Wiedemann) before and after sterilization by disinfectants Chlorhex-C, povidone-iodine, and sodium hypochlorite. We also assess the survival ability of larvae and their sterility after the cleansing process. The results indicate that the isolated microorganisms from the control group of both the species consisted of 10 species of gram-positive bacteria, 21 species of gram-negative bacteria, and 4 species of yeast. As for sterility testing, the eggs and the larvae of C. megacephala were found to have been completely sterilized after being subjected to thioglycollate medium for 5 days, leading to aseptic larvae. By contrast, some microorganisms from the bacterial culture were still detected in the L. cuprina larvae treated with Chlorhex-C and povidone-iodine. The survival ability of the larvae in both the species was not significantly different between the treated and the control groups. Due to its high disinfection efficacy in destroying microorganisms in both the blow fly eggs, sodium hypochlorite is recommended for preparing sterile larvae before using MDT.

Myiasis, the infestation of tissues of live humans and other vertebrate animals with dipteran larvae (maggots), is a phenomenon of widespread occurrence throughout the tropical regions of the world. It is commonly seen in domestic and wild animals but occurs rarely in man also. The tissue invasion in man by maggots is generally a well-recognized complication of neglected wounds. The condition may be asymptomatic but occasionally results in more or less severe problems and even death when larvae invade body cavities or areas that forbid their direct visual examination. Many cases of myiasis, however, usually do not reach the attention of medical practitioners because of the tendency of the mature larvae to migrate out of the lesion for pupation. In the present study, the authors reviewed the past literature describing the cases of human myiasis, causative fly species and predisposing factors for the onset of the same. The aim of the present manuscript is to provide a database for the future reference of medical entomologists, medical practitioners and veterinarians. Review of literature revealed that 37 fly species belonging to ten families were responsible worldwide for the onset of human myiasis. The incidence of myiasis among humans can be correlated to increasing fly populations, poor hygienic conditions and presence of domestic animals in the close vicinity. Other factors responsible for myiasis include neglected open wounds and foul-smelling discharge from natural body openings. Moreover, ignorance plays a key role in its occurrence since people are generally unaware about the actual cause and often correlate the condition to their superstitious beliefs. It is emphasized that the patients should not neglect their wounds and should take proper medical care; otherwise, myiasis may supervene.

Myiasis is the parasitic infestation of human by the larvae (maggots) of dipterous fly that grow within the host while feeding on its tissue. Cutaneous myiasis is the most considerably encountered clinical form. Moreover, wound (traumatic) myiasis is the main clinical manifestation of cutaneous myiasis. In this research, we aimed to study the type of infesting larvae that are responsible for wound myiasis in the patients in Minia city, Egypt. Three cases of wound myiasis have been noticed among 280 patients with wounds at different parts of bodies. Two of them were diabetic patients. The third one had a history of hypertension with right side hemiplegia 2 years ago. All of them were elderly. The larvae removed from cases 1 and 3 were identified macroscopically and microscopically as the third-stage larvae of Sarcophaga haemorrhoidalis. The larvae removed from case 2 were the third-stage larvae of Phormia regina, which is very rare worldwide. In addition to the open and obsolete wound, diabetes mellitus and low socio-economic circumstances were shown to be attributed as important predisposing risk factors that led to the occurrence of myiasis in these patients.

The role of some insect populations in the trans- mission of Trichinella sp. has been demonstrated. However, most of the studies have been conducted under controlled conditions which may influence the real role that they could play as a paratenic host in nature. To enlight this issue, a series of studies to determine the infective capability of the muscle larva of Trichinella spiralis recovered from immature stages of insect populations that fed on infected tissues exposed to natural conditions were carried out. Mice harbouring T. spiralis muscle larvae (ML) were sacrificed and deposited onapitfall trapwhichwasestablishedinanopenand safearea through 25 days in summer. Necrophilous and necrophagous insects that fed on corpses were recovered, identified and processed to search for live ML of T. spiralis. A complemen- tary study in which maggots of Dermestes maculatus recov- ered from nature were induced to feed on muscle tissues harbouring T. spiralis larvae was also performed. The muscle larvae recovered from insects at different times of exposition were counted and inoculated to mice to determine the repro- ductive capability index (RCI). At day 3 of exposition, 29 live ML of T. spiralis were recovered from maggots of Phaenicia sericata. The RCI for these larvae was 133.6. On day 5 of exposition, maggots ofSarcophaga sp. were identified and 17 live T. spiralis larvae were recovered; the RCI of these larvae was 43.4. The T. spiralis ML recovered from maggots of D. maculatus obtained after 2 days of feeding on experimen- tally infected tissue showed a RCI of 24. The results suggest that larval stages of P. sericata, Sarcophaga sp. and D. maculatus might have an important role as a paratenic host of T. spiralis, which, in terms, may influence the epidemiolo- gy of this nematode in endemic areas of trichinellosis.

Although the life cycle of the equid stomach parasite Habronema muscae was disclosed more than 100 years ago, little is known about the effect of the developing nematode larvae in its intermediate host, Musca domestica. In a series of experiments, freshly hatched M. domestica larvae were exposed to H. muscae eggs contained in a faecal sample of a naturally infected horse. In daily intervals, 50 fly larvae were removed and transferred on a parasite-free larval rearing medium where they completed their development. Hatched flies were examined for the presence of Habronema third-stage larvae. In two subsequent control groups, flies spend their entire larval life in contaminated horse faeces and in a parasite-free larval rearing medium, respectively. Out of the 700 fly larvae used in the infection experiments, 304 developed into adult flies of which 281 were infected. The average nematode larval burden rose from 3.6 in the group with the shortest exposure to more than 25 in the groups with the longest exposure. The proportion of larvae that developed into the adult insect fell from 82 % in the uninfected control group to 27 % in the positive control group. The pupae of the positive control group were smaller and lighter than those of the uninfected control group. Lower pupal size and weight in the positive control group as well as a lower insect developing rate might be attributed to the destruction of adipose cells in the maggots by Habronema larvae.

Wohlfahrtia magnifica (Schiner, 1862; Diptera: Sarcophagidae), known also as flesh fly or screwworm, is a fly distributed especially in south Europe, Middle East, North Africa and China. Maggots of W. magnifica are responsible for traumatic myiasis in warm-blooded vertebrate animals and humans. In Italy data on wohlfahrtiosis in animals and humans are scant. This paper reports three cases of genital myiasis by W. magnifica in Sicily that occurred in a goat, a ram and a dog, respectively. Maggots were found in the vulva of a goat, in a wound localised in the scrotum of a ram and in the prepuce of a dog. Although the disease was not recorded before in the region, data collected from a questionnaire specifically designed for the study suggest that the disease is endemic in the area for more than 20 years. Larger epidemiological studies in the region are needed to get more data on disease prevalence and pattern of infestation as well as more information and education is needed for both farmers and veterinarians on wohlfahrtiosis and its strategies of control and treatment.

Cases of myiasis in man associated with preexisting lesions are quite common. However, in the forensic field, certain behavioral habits related to insects may be useful to ratify mistreatment. This is a register of a case of oral myiasis by Cochliomyia hominivorax (Diptera: Calliphoridae), an obligate parasite of warm-blooded animals, in a 95-year-old man with Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. The identification of immatures removed (n = 87) was based on their morphological characteristics. Considering the developmental time and length of the maggots, it was possible to estimate an infestation of at least 143 h. Undoubtedly, the poor state of health was one of the cofactors for the infestation; however, the long time of infestation observed denotes negligence in the conduct of patient care. In terms of prophylaxis, it would be recommended that individuals who need special care must have access to more comprehensive physical examinations and periodicals, as well as hygienic conditions should be meticulously observed. Additionally, the immatures causing myiasis after being removed must be stored and forwarded for analysis, since their identification can be crucial to determine the exact time and circumstances of an infestation, and consequently its pathogenesis. If we consider the aggressiveness of C. hominivorax, a fast and reliable diagnosis becomes even more important for an adequate treatment. Finally, it is expected that this study encourages the health care professionals to improve the treatment of incapable patients.

By definition, parasites cause harm to their hosts. But, considerable evidence from ancient traditional medicine has supported the theory of using parasites and their products in treating many diseases. Maggots have been used successfully to treat chronic, long-standing, infected wounds which failed to respond to conventional treatment by many beneficial effects on the wound including debridement, disinfection, and healing enhancement. Maggots are also applied in forensic medicine to estimate time between the death and discovery of a corpse and in entomotoxicology involving the potential use of insects as alternative samples for detecting drugs and toxins in death investigations. Leeches are segmented invertebrates, famous by their blood-feeding habits and used in phlebotomy to treat various ailments since ancient times. Leech therapy is experiencing resurgence nowadays in health care principally in plastic and reconstructive surgery. Earthworms provide a source of medicinally useful products with potential antimicrobial, antiviral, and anticancer properties. Lumbrokinases are a group of fibrinolytic enzymes isolated and purified from earthworms capable of degrading plasminogen-rich and plasminogen-free fibrin and so can be used to treat various conditions associated with thrombotic diseases. Helminth infection has been proved to have therapeutic effects in both animal and human clinical trials with promising evidence in treating many allergic diseases and can block the induction of or reduce the severity of some autoimmune disorders as Crohn’s disease or ulcerative colitis. What is more, venomous arthropods such as scorpions, bees, wasps, spiders, ants, centipedes, snail, beetles, and caterpillars. The venoms and toxins from these arthropods provide a promising source of natural bioactive compounds which can be employed in the development of new drugs to treat diseases as cancer. The possibility of using these active molecules in biotechnological processes can make these venoms and toxins a valuable and promising source of natural bioactive compounds. The therapeutic use of helminthes and insects will be of great value in biomedicine and further studies on insect toxins will contribute extensively to the development of Biomedical Sciences.

Blowflies have major medical and sanitary importance because they can be vectors of viruses, bacteria, and helminths and are also causative agents of myiasis. Also, these flies, especially those belonging to the genus Chrysomya, are among the first insects to arrive at carcasses and are therefore valuable in providing data for the estimation of the minimum postmortem interval (PMImin). The PMImin can be calculated by assessing the weight, length, or development stage of blowfly larvae. Lack of information on the variables that might affect these parameters in different fly species can generate inaccuracies in estimating the PMImin. This study evaluated the effects of different types of bovine tissues (the liver, muscle, tongue, and stomach) and chicken heart on the development rates of larvae of Chrysomya albiceps Wiedemann, Chrysomya megacephala Fabricius, and Chrysomya putoria Wiedemann (Diptera: Calliphoridae). The efficiency of each rearing substrate was assessed by maggot weight gain (mg), larval development time (h), larval and pupal survival (%), and emergence interval (h). The development rates of larvae of all blowfly species studied here were directly influenced by the type of food substrate. Tissues that have high contents of protein and fat (muscle and heart) allowed the highest larval weight gain. For bovine liver, all Chrysomya species showed slower growth, by as much as 48 h, compared to the other tissues. Different rates of development are probably associated with specific energy requirements of calliphorids and the nutritional composition of each type of food.

The therapeutic efficacies of ivermectin (Ivomec injection, Merck Sharp & Dohme B.V.) and moxidectin (Cydectin 1% injection, American Cyanamid Company) were evaluated in sheep naturally infested with larvae of Wohlfahrtia magnified. Sheep were randomly allocated to one of the 2 groups, each consisting of 19 animals. Sheep in one group received ivermectin and those in the other, moxidectin by subcutaneous injection at a dose of 0.2 mg/kg body weight. Evaluation was performed at 19, 24, 28, 39, 43, 48, 52, 63, 67, 72, 87, 96, 120, 144 and 168 h after treatment. At 144 and 168 h post-treatment, late third-instar larvae were collected from wounds of four sheep in both groups and from untreated, infested sheep. These larvae were reared in the laboratory to assess adult emergence. Neither ivermectin nor moxidectin was effective as a rapid acting treatment or as a long-term, or even short-term, prophylactic. Despite the treatment, 30–40% of sheep had live larvae at every evaluation. Although larvae disappeared from the wounds of some sheep in both groups after the treatment, the wounds in these animals failed to recover and were reinfested by larvae of W. magnified. On day 7 post-treatment the trial had to be finished because the majority of treated sheep were severely infested by Wohlfahrtia maggots. The average number of infested sheep in the two groups and the number of adults that were produced from larvae collected from treated sheep indicate that ivermectin and moxidectin did not differ significantly in efficacy.

The house fly, Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae) is one of the major pests of confined and pastured livestock worldwide. Livestock manures play an important role in the development and spread of M. domestica. In the present study, we investigated the impact of different livestock manures on the fitness and relative growth rate of M. domestica and intrinsic rate of natural increase. We tested the hypotheses by studying life history parameters including developmental time from egg to adult's eclosion, fecundity, longevity, and survival on manures of buffalo, cow, nursing calf, dog, horse, poultry, sheep, and goat, which revealed significant differences that might be associated with fitness costs. The maggots reared on poultry manure developed faster compared to any other host manure. The total developmental time was the shortest on poultry manure and the longest on horse manure. The fecundity by females reared on poultry, nursing calf, and dog manures was greater than on any other host manures. Similarly, percent survival of immature stages, pupal weight, eggs viability, adults' eclosion, survival and longevity, intrinsic rate of natural increase, and biotic potential were significantly higher on poultry, nursing calf, and dog manures compared to any other livestock manures tested. However, the sex ratio of adult flies remained the same on all types of manures. The low survival on horse, buffalo, cow, sheep, and goat manures suggest unsuitability of these manures, while the higher pupal weight on poultry, nursing calf, and dog manures suggest that these may provide better food quality to M. domestica compared with any other host manures. Our results point to the role of livestock manures in increasing local M. domestica populations. Such results could help to design cultural management strategies which may include sanitation, moisture management, and manure removal.

The paper summarizes the acaricidal and insecticidal effects of a patented neem seed extract when diluted 1:10 with shampoo or 1:20, 1:30, 1:33, 1:40, respectively, 1:66 with tap water. It was shown that a broad range of pests and parasites, such as house dust mites, poultry mites, harvest mites, Ixodes and Rhipicephalus ticks, cat fleas (adults, larvae), bed bugs (all stages), head lice and mallophaga, cockroaches (genera Blatta, Blattella, Gomphadorhina), raptor bugs (Triatoma), and even food-attacking beetle (Tenebrio molitor) might be controlled with this extract, which is available as Tre-san® (against house dust mites) and MiteStop® (against mites, ticks, insects of any kind) to become water diluted or as Wash Away Louse® or Picksan LouseStop® being diluted in a shampoo. Tests on skin compatibility proved that there are no skin irritations during or after use. However, some target species are less sensible (beetles, Triatoma stages, fly maggots), while the specimens of the other species cited above were successfully killed even at low concentrations of the extract.