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Helminth infection and their secreted antigens have a protective role in many immune-mediated inflammatory disorders such as inflammatory bowel disease, rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis. However, studies have focused primarily on identifying immune protective mechanisms of helminth infection and their secreted molecules on dendritic cells and macrophages. Given that mast cells have been shown to be implicated in the pathogenesis and progression of many inflammatory disorders, their role should also be examined and considered as cellular target for helminth-based therapies. As there is a dearth of studies examining the interaction of helminth-derived antigens and mast cells, this review will focus on the role of mast cells during helminth infection and examine our current understanding of the involvement of mast cells in TH 1/TH 17-mediated immune disorders. In this context, potential mechanisms by which helminths could target the TH 1/TH 17 promoting properties of mast cells can be identified to unveil novel therapeutic mast cell driven targets in combating these inflammatory disorders.

Summary The M2 subset of macrophages has a critical role to play in host tissue repair, tissue fibrosis and modulation of adaptive immunity during helminth infection. Infection with the helminth, Fasciola hepatica, is associated with M2 macrophages in its mammalian host, and this response is mimicked by its excretory-secretory products (FhES). The tegumental coat of F. hepatica (FhTeg) is another major source of immune-modulatory molecules; we have previously shown that FhTeg can modulate the activity of both dendritic cells and mast cells inhibiting their ability to prime a Th1 immune response. Here, we report that FhTeg does not induce Th2 immune responses but can induce M2-like phenotype in vivo that modulates cytokine production from CD4+ cells in response to anti-CD3 stimulation. FhTeg induces a RELMα expressing macrophage population in vitro, while in vivo, the expression of Arg1 and Ym-1/2 but not RELMα in FhTeg-stimulated macrophages was STAT6 dependent. To support this finding, FhTeg induces RELMα expression in vivo prior to the induction of IL-13. FhTeg can induce IL-13-producing peritoneal macrophages following intraperitoneal injection This study highlights the important role of FhTeg as an immune-modulatory source during F. hepatica infection and sheds further light on helminth–macrophage interactions.

Summary Fasciola hepatica tegumental coat antigen (FhTeg) suppresses dendritic cell maturation and function by inhibiting IL-6, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, IL-10 and IL-12 production and CD80, CD86 and CD40 cell surface marker expression in TLR4-stimulated dendritic cells. Fasciola hepatica also impairs dendritic cell function by inhibiting its phagocytic capacity and its ability to prime T cells. We have shown previously that activation of mast cells with bacterial ligands is also inhibited by FhTeg. Fasciola hepatica suppresses LPS-induced NF-κB and MAPK pathway (ERK) activation in these cells. Previously, we demonstrated that FhTeg induces expression of suppressor of cytokine signalling (SOCS)3, a negative regulator of the TLR pathway in mast cells. In this study, we show the same inhibitory effect of FhTeg on the activation of the other members of the MAPKs pathway (ERK, p38, JNK) in dendritic cells and demonstrate an enhanced expression of SOCS3, but not SOCS1, SOCS5 or PIAS3 in this process. These studies enhance our understanding of the immunomodulatory effect of helminth molecules on the TLR pathway.