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Chronic nonmalignant pain is recognized as a complex, dynamic, phenomenological interplay between biological, psychological, and social factors that are individual to the person suffering from it. Therefore, its management and treatment ought to entail the individual's biopsychosocial aspects that are often addressed by collaborative, inter/multidisciplinary multimodal care, as there is no biologic treatment. In an effort to enhance inter/multidisciplinary multimodal care, a narrative review of arts therapy as a mind-body intervention and its efficacy in chronic pain populations has been conducted. Changes in emotional and physical symptoms, especially pain intensity, during arts therapy sessions have also been discussed in in the context of attention distraction strategy. Arts therapy (visual art, music, dance/movement therapy, etc.) have been investigated to summarize relevant findings and to highlight further potential benefits, limitations, and future directions in this area. We reviewed 16 studies of different design, and the majority reported beneficial effects of art therapy in patients' management of chronic pain and improvement in pain, mood, stress, and quality of life. However, the results are inconsistent and unclear. It was discovered that there is a limited amount of high-quality research available on the implications of arts therapy in chronic nonmalignant pain management. Due to the reported limitations, low effectiveness, and inconclusive findings of arts therapy in the studies conducted so far, further research with improved methodological standards is required., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Introduction: In recent years, the erector spinae plane block (ESPB) has seen widespread use to treat acute and chronic pain in the regions of the thoracic spine. While limited data suggest its increasing utilization for pain management distal to the thoracic, abdomen and trunk, the anesthetic spread and analgesic mechanism of ESPB at the level of the lumbar spine has not been fully described or understood., Methods: This is an observational anatomic cadaveric study to assess the distribution of solution following an ESPB block performed at the fourth lumbar vertebrae (L4) using ultrasound guidance to evaluate the spread of a 20 ml solution consisting of local anesthetic and methylene blue. The study was performed in an anatomy lab in a large academic medical center. Following injection of local anesthetic with contrast dye, cadaveric dissection was performed to better understand the extent of contrast dye and to determine the degree of staining to further predict analgesic potential. We reviewed the findings of other ESPB cadaveric studies currently available for comparison., Results: Following cadaveric dissection in an anatomy lab, the contrast dye was observed in the ESP space, and staining was found most cranially at L2 and extending caudally underneath the sacrum. Evaluating the depth of its spread, we found it to be confined to the posterior compartment of the spine sparing the nerve roots bilaterally, which is consistent with the only other cadaveric study of ESPB performed at L4., Conclusion: Our results demonstrate the clinical utility of lumbar ESPB where posterior confinement of local anesthesia is preferred. However, further investigation is needed to determine the efficacy of ESPB in lower extremity analgesia which is predicated on ventral nerve root involvement., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Lumbar spinal stenosis (LSS), which often occurs concurrently with degenerative spondylolisthesis (DS), is a common disease in the elderly population, affecting the quality of life of aged people significantly. Notwithstanding the frequently good effect of conservative therapy on LSS, a minority of the patients ultimately require surgery. Surgery for LSS aims to decompress the narrowed spinal canals with preservation of spinal stability. Traditional open surgery, either pure decompression or decompression with fusion, was considered effective for the treatment of LSS with or without DS. However, the long-term clinical outcomes of traditional open surgery are still unclear. Moreover, the disadvantages of conventional open surgery are extensive, examples including tissue injuries or secondary instability, with limited outcomes and significant reoperation rates. With the development and improvement of surgical tools, various minimally invasive spine surgery (MISS) methods, including indirect decompression techniques of interspinous process devices (IPDs) and direct decompression techniques such as microscopic spine surgery or endoscopic spine surgery (ESS), have been updated with enhancement. IPDs, such as Superion devices, were reported to behave with comparable physical function, disability, and symptoms outcomes to laminectomy decompression. As an emerging technique of MISS, ESS has beneficial hallmarks including minimal tissue injuries, reduced complication rates, and shortened recovery periods, thus gaining popularity in recent years. ESS can be classified in terms of endoscopic hallmarks and approaches. Predictably, with the continuous development and gradual maturity, MISS is expected to replace traditional open surgery widely in the surgical treatment of LSS associated with DS in the future., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

Complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) is a chronic pain condition often involving hyperalgesia and allodynia of the extremities. CRPS is divided into CRPS-I and CRPS-II. Type I occurs when there is no confirmed nerve injury. Type II is when there is known associated nerve injury. Female gender is a risk factor for developing CRPS. Other risk factors include fibromyalgia and rheumatoid arthritis. Unfortunately, the pathogenesis of CRPS is not yet clarified. Some studies have demonstrated different potential pathways. Neuropathic inflammation, specifically activation of peripheral nociceptors of C-fibers, has been shown to play a critical role in developing CRPS. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is involved. Depending on whether it is acute or chronic CRPS, norepinephrine levels are either decreased or increased, respectively. Some studies have suggested the importance of genetics in developing CRPS. More consideration is being given to the role of psychological factors. Some association between a history of depression and/or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and the diagnosis of CRPS has been demonstrated. Treatment modalities available range from physical therapy, pharmacotherapy, and interventional techniques. Physical and occupational therapies include mirror therapy and graded motor imagery. Medical management with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) has not shown significant improvement. There have been supporting findings in the use of short-course steroids, bisphosphonates, gabapentin, and ketamine. Antioxidant treatment has also shown some promise. Other pharmacotherapies include low-dose naltrexone and Botulinum toxin A (BTX-A). Sympathetic blocks are routinely used, even if their short- and long-term effects are not clear. Finally, spinal cord stimulation (SCS) has been used for decades. In conclusion, CRPS is a multifactorial condition that still requires further studying to better understand its pathogenesis, epidemiology, genetic involvement, psychological implications, and treatment options. Future studies are warranted to better understand this syndrome. This will provide an opportunity for better prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of CRPS., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

Introduction: Spinal cord stimulation (SCS) is a commonly utilized therapy for the treatment of neuropathic pain conditions. The Neurostimulation Appropriateness Consensus Committee (NACC) has recommended that the placement of percutaneous SCS leads be performed in an awake patient capable of providing feedback. It is not currently known how commonly this recommendation is adhered to by physicians in clinical practice. This article presents the findings of a survey designed to answer this important question., Methods: We conducted a survey of the active membership of the American Society of Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine (ASRA) and the Spine Intervention Society (SIS) regarding practice patterns with SCS therapy. We analyzed the percent of respondents who indicated that they use deep sedation and general anesthesia during SCS placement as well as any reported complications., Results: Many practitioners frequently utilize deep sedation as well as general anesthesia when performing SCS implants. Our findings demonstrate that 77% of physicians reported that they utilize deep sedation for permanent SCS implants at times, and 45% of physicians reported the use of general anesthesia for 10 kHz implants. Additionally, 94% of physicians reported that they have never had a complication related to the use of general anesthesia for a spinal cord stimulator placement., Conclusions: This survey provides initial data on SCS practices among a large cohort of clinicians who utilize SCS. SCS lead placement under deep sedation and general anesthesia appears to be common practice for many physicians who perform implants. This survey should stimulate further research on this topic, given that the current safety guidelines and the rate of physicians reporting the use of deep sedation and general anesthesia for spinal cord stimulator placement remain at odds., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

Introduction: Nalbuphine, a synthetic kappa-opioid receptor (KOR) agonist and a partial µ-opioid receptor (MOR) antagonist, has been used for years as an effective analgesic. It has been shown to have a better safety profile than morphine. Considering the long history of use of this drug, it is interesting that only a limited amount of information exists on how gender differences influence nalbuphine responses. In this randomized double-blind comparative trial after major abdominal surgery, the analgesic effects of two doses of continuous intravenous infusion of nalbuphine were evaluated based on gender., Methods: Enrolled patients were divided into four groups (two females and two males with 32 patients in each group). Two of them (groups A1 and A2), one male and one female, received postoperative continuous intravenous infusions of nalbuphine at 2 mg/h via patient-controlled analgesia (PCA). Each patient had the potential of receiving a rescue bolus of 1 mg of nalbuphine with a lock out time of 15 min. The other two groups (groups B1 and B2) received half the infusion dose, 1 mg/h, and half the nalbuphine rescue dose with the PCA pump, 0.5 mg maximum every 15 min as needed. Patients' vital signs, numerical pain rating scores, rescue nalbuphine, and incidence of side effects were assessed immediately after the operation, and every 3 h during the first 12 h., Results: Nalbuphine 2 mg/h dosing led to significantly lower pain scores amongst females compared to males at 6, 9, and 12 h; while the 1 mg/h infusion pain scores were only lower at the 9-h time period. Females receiving the nalbuphine 2 mg dose at 6 h, and the 1 mg dose at 6, 9, and 12-h measurements needed significantly lower doses of rescue nalbuphine. Females on the 1 mg dose experienced significantly more nausea, vomiting, and sedation at the 6-, 9-, and 12-h measurement times. In the multivariate analysis, female gender was a negative predictor at all measurement times., Conclusions: The current study supports the hypothesis that although nalbuphine was found to be an effective and well-tolerated analgesic after major abdominal surgery, females were statistically more responsive than males., Trial Registration: The study was registered at the Pan African Clinical trials Registry PACTR201304000486309, and approved for the Ethical aspects., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

Chronic pain is a common source of morbidity in many patient populations worldwide. There are growing concerns about the potential side effects of currently prescribed medications and a continued need for effective treatment. Related to these concerns, peripheral nerve stimulation has been regaining popularity as a potential treatment modality. Peripheral nerve stimulation components include helically coiled electrical leads, which direct an applied current to afferent neurons providing sensory innervation to the painful area. In theory, the applied current to the peripheral nerve will alter the large-diameter myelinated afferent nerve fibers, which interfere with the central processing of pain signals through small-diameter afferent fibers at the level of the spinal cord. Multiple studies have shown success in the use of peripheral nerve stimulation for acute post-surgical pain for orthopedic surgery, including post total knee arthroplasty and anterior cruciate ligament surgery, and chronic knee pain. Many studies have investigated the utility of peripheral nerve stimulation for the management of chronic shoulder pain. Peripheral nerve stimulation also serves as one of the potential non-pharmacologic therapies to treat back pain along with physical therapy, application of transcutaneous electrical neurostimulation unit, radiofrequency ablation, epidural steroid injections, permanently implanted neurostimulators, and surgery. Studies regarding back pain treatment have shown that peripheral nerve stimulation led to significant improvement in all pain and quality-of-life measures and a reduction in the use of opioids. Further studies are needed as the long-term risks and benefits of peripheral nerve stimulation have not been well studied as most information available on the effectiveness of peripheral nerve stimulation is based on shorter-term improvements in chronic pain., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

Purpose of the Review: Chronic low back pain (CLBP) is a major contributor to societal disease burden and years lived with disability. Nonspecific low back pain (LBP) is attributed to physical and psychosocial factors, including lifestyle factors, obesity, and depression. Mechanical low back pain occurs related to repeated trauma to or overuse of the spine, intervertebral disks, and surrounding tissues. This causes disc herniation, vertebral compression fractures, lumbar spondylosis, spondylolisthesis, and lumbosacral muscle strain., Recent Findings: A systematic review of relevant literature was conducted. CENTRAL, MEDLINE, EMBASE, PubMed, and two clinical trials registry databases up to 24 June 2015 were included in this review. Search terms included: low back pain, over the counter, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory (NSAID), CLBP, ibuprofen, naproxen, acetaminophen, disk herniation, lumbar spondylosis, vertebral compression fractures, spondylolisthesis, and lumbosacral muscle strain. Over-the-counter analgesics are the most frequently used first-line medication for LBP, and current guidelines indicate that over-the-counter medications should be the first prescribed treatment for non-specific LBP. Current literature suggests that NSAIDs and acetaminophen as well as antidepressants, muscle relaxants, and opioids are effective treatments for CLBP. Recent randomized controlled trials also evaluate the benefit of buprenorphine, tramadol, and strong opioids such as oxycodone. This systematic review discusses current evidence pertaining to non-prescription treatment options for chronic low back pain.

Chronic low back pain affects a significant portion of patients worldwide and is a major contributor to patient disability; however, it is a difficult problem to diagnose and treat. The prevailing model of chronic low back pain has presumed to follow a discogenic model, but recent studies have shown a vertebrogenic model that involves the basivertebral nerve (BVN). Radiofrequency ablation of the BVN has emerged as a possible nonsurgical therapy for vertebrogenic low back pain. The objective of this manuscript is to provide a comprehensive review of vertebrogenic pain diagnosis and our current understanding of BVN ablation as treatment.

Introduction: This compilation presents a comprehensive review of the literature on common chronic pain conditions of the hand. It briefly presents these common conditions with their biological background, diagnosis, and common management options. It then presents and compares the latest literature available for injection techniques to treat these diagnoses and compares the available evidence., Methods: A comprehensive literature review was performed in MEDLINE, PubMed, and Cochrane databases from 1996 to 2019 using the terms "hand pain", "injection techniques", "steroid injection", "chronic pain", "osteoarthritis", "rheumatoid arthritis", "carpal tunnel syndrome", "De Quervain's tenosynovitis", "ganglion cyst", "gout", "Raynaud's", and "stenosing tenosynovitis"., Results: Hand pain is a common condition with 9.7% prevalence in men and 21.6% in women and can cause significant morbidity and disability. It also carries a significant cost to the individuals and the healthcare system, totaling in $4 billion dollars in 2003. Injection therapy is an alternative when conservative treatment fails. Osteoarthritis is the most common chronic hand pain syndrome and affects about 16% of the population. Its mechanism is largely mechanic, and as such, there is controversy if steroid injections are of benefit. Hyaluronic acid (HA) appears to provide substantial relief of pain and may increase functionality. More studies of HA are required to make a definite judgment on its efficacy. Similarly, steroid ganglion cyst injection may confer little benefit. Carpal tunnel syndrome is a compressive neuropathy, and only temporarily relieved with injection therapy. US-guidance provides significant improvement and, while severe cases may still require surgery, can provide a valuable bridge therapy to surgery when conservative treatment fails. Similar bridging treatments and increased efficacy under US-guidance are effective for stenosing tenosynovitis ("trigger finger"), though, interestingly, inflammatory background is associated with decreased effect in this case. When the etiology of the pain is inflammatory, such as in RA, corticosteroid (CS) injections provide significant pain relief and increased functionality. They do not, however, change the course of disease (unlike DMARDs). Another such example is De-Quervain tenosynovitis that sees good benefit from CS injections, and an increased efficacy with US-guidance, and similarly are CS injections for gout. For Raynaud's phenomenon, Botox injections have encouraging results, but more studies are needed to determine safety and efficacy, as well as the possible difference in effect between primary and secondary Raynaud's., Conclusions: Chronic hand pain is a prevalent and serious condition and can cause significant morbidity and disability and interferes with independence and activities of daily living. Conservative treatment remains the first line of treatment; however, when first-line treatments fail, steroid injections can usually provide benefit. In some cases, HA or Botox may also be beneficial. US-guidance is increasing in hand injection and almost ubiquitously provides safer, more effective injections. Hand surgery remains the alternative for refractory pain.

Migraine headache is a common, chronic, debilitating disease with a complex etiology. Current therapy for migraine headache comprises either treatments targeting acute migraine pain or prophylactic therapy aimed at increasing the length of time between migraine episodes. Recent evidence suggests that calcium gene-related peptide (CGRP) is a critical component in the pathogenesis of migraines. Fremanezumab, a monoclonal antibody against CGRP, was recently approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) after multiple studies showed that it was well-tolerated, safe, and effective in the treatment of migraines. Further research is needed to elucidate the long-term effects of fremanezumab and CGRP-antagonists in general, and additional data is required in less healthy patients to estimate its effects in these populations and potentially increase the eligible group of recipients. This is a comprehensive review of the current literature on the efficacy and safety of fremanezumab for the treatment of chronic migraine. In this review we provide an update on the epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and current treatment of migraine, and summarize the evidence for fremanezumab as a treatment for migraine.

Introduction: Cosmetic breast surgery is commonly performed in the United States; 520,000 procedures of the total 1.8 million cosmetic surgical procedures performed in 2018 were breast related. Postoperative chronic pain, defined as lasting 3 or more months, has been reported in a wide variety of breast surgical procedures including breast augmentation, reduction mammaplasty, mastectomy, and mastectomy with reconstruction. Patient characteristics associated with the development of postoperative chronic pain following cosmetic breast surgery include a younger age, larger BMI, smaller height, postoperative hyperesthesia, and elevated baseline depression, anxiety, and catastrophizing scores. The anatomical distribution of chronic pain following breast augmentation procedures is dependent upon incision site placement; pectoral and intercostal nerves have been implicated. The purpose of this review is to provide an update on the current literature addressing the pathophysiology, clinical presentation, and treatment of patients presenting with chronic postoperative pain following cosmetic breast surgery., Methods: A comprehensive literature review was performed in MEDLINE, PubMed, and Cochrane databases from 1996 to 2019 using the terms "cosmetic surgery", "breast surgery", "postoperative pain", and "chronic pain"., Results: Cosmetic breast surgery can have a similar presentation as post-mastectomy pain syndrome and thus have overlapping diagnostic criteria. Seven domains are identified for a diagnosis of PBSPS: Pain after breast surgery, neuropathic in nature, at least a moderate intensity of pain, as defined as within the middle one-third of the selected pain scale, pain for at least 6 months, symptoms occurring for 12 or more hours a day for a minimum of 4 days each week, pain in at least one of the following sites: breast, chest wall, axilla, or arm on the affected side, pain exacerbated by movement. Patient risk factors and surgical risk factors may influence the development of chronic post-cosmetic surgery breast pain. Improved perioperative analgesia including preoperative regional nerve anesthesia and postoperative catheter infusion have been shown to improve chronic postoperative pain outcomes., Conclusions: The present review provides a discussion of clinical presentation, pathophysiology, and treatment and preventative strategies for chronic breast pain following cosmetic surgery. This review provides evidence from multiple randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and systematic reviews of efficacy and effectiveness. While chronic postoperative breast pain remains challenging to treat, various preventative strategies have been described to improve postoperative pain outcomes.

Purpose of Review: This is a comprehensive literature review of the available evidence and techniques of foot injections for chronic pain conditions. It briefly describes common foot chronic pain syndromes and then reviews available injection techniques for each of these syndromes, weighing the available evidence and comparing the available approaches., Recent Findings: Foot and ankle pain affects 20% of the population over 50 and significantly impairs mobility and ability to participate in activities of daily living (ADLs), as well as increases fall risk. It is commonly treated with costly surgery, at times with questionable efficacy. Injection therapy is challenging when the etiology is anatomical or compressive. Morton's neuroma is a budging of the interdigital nerve. Steroid, alcohol, and capsaicin injections provide some benefit, but it is short lived. Hyaluronic acid (HA) injection provided long-term relief and could prove to be a viable treatment option. Achilles tendinopathy (AT) is most likely secondary to repeat tendon stress-platelet-rich-plasma (PRP) and prolotherapy have been trialed for this condition, but more evidence is required to show efficacy. Similar injections were trials for plantar fasciitis and achieved only short-term relief; however, some evidence suggests that PRP injections reduce the frequency of required therapy. Tarsal tunnel syndrome, a compressive neuropathy carries a risk of permanent neural injury if left untreated. Injection therapy can provide a bridge to surgery; however, surgical decompression remains the definitive therapy. When the etiology is inflammatory, steroid injection is more likely to provide benefit. This has been shown in several studies for gout, as well as osteoarthritis of the foot and ankle and treatment-refractory rheumatoid arthritis. HA showed similar benefit, possibly due to anti-inflammatory effects. Stem cell injections may provide the additional benefit of structure restoration. Chronic foot pain is common in the general population and has significant associated morbidity and disability. Traditionally treated with surgery, these are costly and only somewhat effective. Injections provide an effective alternative financially and some evidence exists that they are effective in pain alleviation. However, current evidence is limited and the benefit described from injection therapy has been short-lived in most cases. Further studies in larger populations are required to evaluate the long-term effects of these treatments.

Introduction: Total knee arthroplasty (TKA) is an effective treatment modality for severe osteoarthritis of the knee. Causes of pain following TKA are poorly understood; however, patient-specific biology and various neuropathic underlying mechanisms such as neuroma formation and complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) have been suggested. Our case demonstrated the successful treatment of CRPS in the knee with the use of combination therapy in spinal cord stimulator., Case: We present a 71-year-old Caucasian non-Hispanic male who presented with chronic left knee pain after undergoing a total knee arthroplasty (TKA) 18 months prior. Following his TKA, he reported doing well in the acute post-operative period but began to develop progressively worsening left knee pain at approximately the third post-operative week. He underwent a successful spinal cord stimulator (SCS) trial and subsequent implantation of two 16-contact Boston Scientific leads with a Boston Scientific Spectra WaveWriterTM SCS system. Upon first post-procedural follow-up, and moreover at his 6-month follow-up, the patient reported complete resolution of his symptoms., Discussion: The development of persistent pain following TKA is a significant complication that is often challenging to treat. Our case demonstrated the successful treatment of CRPS in the knee with the use of combination therapy in spinal cord stimulator therapy. We anticipate that more data will continue to emerge to assess for the safety and efficacy of combination therapy.

Baastrup's disease, known colloquially as "kissing spine disease", is a degenerative process, most commonly occurring in the lumbar spine, in which adjacent spinous processes closely approximate or even touch (Filippiadis et al. in Insights Imaging. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13244-014-0376-7, 2015). We present the case of an 86-year-old woman presenting with left low back, hip, and anterolateral thigh pain. Magnetic resonance imaging noted an approximation of the L2/3 spinous processes, with degeneration of the vertebral processes. This article is based on previously conducted studies and does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors. Informed consent for publication was obtained from the participant.

Pain physicians, more so than any other specialty, interact with a patient population that is significantly more likely to engage in violence. In this commentary on the article "Patient-on-Provider Violence in the Pain Clinic" by Judy George, we echo some of the points mentioned in the manuscript. There needs to be a better system in place to identify and to deal with problem patients seeking drugs. Although there has been a push recently to move away from opioids with a patient-specific multimodal analgesic treatment plan with a focus on interventional pain procedures, opioids are still a part of the pain physician's practice. The medical community must stand behind ensuring these doctors and their staff can practice in an environment that is safe for them and the patients they are caring for. This response fully complies with ethical guidelines. This article is based on previously conducted studies and does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.

Cannabis users have long reported therapeutic properties of the plant for a variety of conditions, some of which include nausea, emesis, seizures, cancer, neurogenic diseases and pain control. Research has elucidated many cannabinoid pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties, expanding the potential use of cannabinoids as a medical therapy. Due to the inconsistent delivery and control of the active components involved with smoking, pharmaceutical companies are investigating and prioritizing routes other than smoke inhalation for therapeutic use of cannabinoids. In this relatively new field of pharmaceutical development, ongoing drug development promises great benefit from targeted endocannabinoid receptor agonism. Available in Canada and Europe, nabiximols, a specific extract from the Cannabis plant, has demonstrated great benefit in the treatment of pain related to spasticity in multiple sclerosis, cancer and otherwise chronic pain conditions. The cannabidiol oral solution Epidiolex®, which is available in the USA, is indicated for management of refractory epilepsy but may offer therapeutic relief to chronic pain conditions as well. Current investigative drugs, such as those developed by Cara Therapeutics and Zynerba Pharmaceuticals, are synthetic cannabinoids which show promise to specifically target neuropsychiatric conditions and chronic pain symptoms such as neuropathy and allodynia. The objective of this review is to provide clinicians with an update of currently available and promising developmental cannabis pharmaceutical derivatives which may stand to greatly benefit patients with otherwise difficult-to-treat chronic conditions.

Thoracic outlet syndrome, a group of diverse disorders, is a collection of symptoms in the shoulder and upper extremity area that results in pain, numbness, and tingling. Identification of thoracic outlet syndrome is complex and a thorough clinical examination in addition to appropriate clinical testing can aide in diagnosis. Practitioners must consider the pathology of thoracic outlet syndrome in their differential diagnosis for shoulder and upper extremity pain symptoms so that patients are directed appropriately to timely therapeutic interventions. Patients with a definitive etiology who have failed conservative management are ideal candidates for surgical correction. This manuscript will discuss thoracic outlet syndrome, occurrence, physical presentation, clinical implications, diagnosis, and management.

The opioid epidemic has resulted from myriad causes and will not be solved by any simple solution. Consequent to a staggering increase in opioid-related deaths in the USA, various governmental inputs and stakeholder strategies have been proposed and implemented with varying success. This article summarizes the history of opioid use and explores the causes for the present day epidemic. Recent trends in opioid-related data demonstrate an almost fourfold increase in overdose deaths from 1999 to 2008. Tragically, opioids claimed over 64,000 lives just last year. Some solutions have undergone legislation, including the limitation of numbers of opioids postsurgery, as well as growing national prevalence of enhanced recovery after surgery protocols which focus on reduced postoperative opioid consumption and shortened hospital stays. Stricter prescribing practices and prescription monitoring programs have been instituted in the recent past. Improvement in abuse deterrent strategies which is a major focus of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for all opioid preparations will likely play an important role by increasing the safety of these medications. Future potential strategies such as additional legislative policies, public awareness, and physician education are also detailed in this review.