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The professionalization of modern nursing education from 1850 and forward is closely linked to values and virtues underpinned by Christian ideals, sex‐based stereotypes and class. Development in the late 19th century of modern hospital medicine, combined with a scientific understanding of antisepsis and asepsis, hygiene, contagion prevention and germ theory, were highly influential insights to the dominant position of modern medicine in health care. This development constituted a key premise for what nurses, by virtue of being women, and combined with their education, could offer in terms of medical assistance. It enabled them to challenge the prevailing sex‐based stereotypes‐ and class‐based hierarchies, allowing modern nursing to retain aspects of both traditional Christian and womanly values, while at the same time adhering to the medical science paradigm. In this paper, we argue that modern nursing education developed in a context characterized by traditional female and religious values, while at the same time being increasingly dominated by the influence of scientific and medical progress. This conflict between traditional and modern values caused dilemmas and tensions as the nursing profession developed. We argue further that similar dilemmas and tensions continue to pervade contemporary nursing and nursing education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the research was to analyse the experience of medical volunteers during World War II in the context of nursing history. Oral history data used in the study consisted of 30 interviews with Finnish wartime medical volunteers, known locally as Lottas. Interview data were analysed both thematically and by using the oral history method. Based on the analysis, the Lottas' experiences during wartime nursing became the leitmotif of this study. The main themes consisted of the following: 'taking care of wounded and ill patients', 'taking care of dying and deceased patients', 'taking care of mentally ill and psychoactive substance-addicted patients' and 'confronting ethical and role dilemmas in nursing'. The interview results showed that the Lottas' duties were sometimes more demanding than basic nursing tasks and that their education was not adequate for the challenges that they faced. In this paper, the terms Lotta, medical Lotta or medical volunteer are used interchangeably and refer to people who were assigned to medical volunteer tasks, regardless of whether or not they were trained. It also includes junior members of the organisation who served as medical volunteers as minors, with special permission., (© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Following the Francis report into shockingly deficient standards of care at an English hospital, this paper examines UK nurse education and revisits the premises on which the professional narrative of nursing was built. The UK government's response to the report is to introduce the 'associate nurse' role, to be nationally trained to do fundamental care in place of the registered nurse, and a nursing apprenticeship scheme-on-the-job training for a nursing degree. UK nursing bodies do not address the report's recommendations in regard to registered nurse education; rather, they advocate a further perpetuation of the current system. This shows deep uncertainty about what the 'true' nurse is. To those familiar with the Nightingale model that characterised nursing in England and elsewhere for a century before the introduction of Project 2000 in 1986, there is an intriguing historical echo in the Francis report. One might wonder whether Francis is really recommending a return to a virtue-based, practice-driven, nationally standardised version of nursing education developed by Nightingale and evidenced in nursing syllabuses in England and Wales 1860-1977. This paper supports this position, and shows from a review of historical and contemporary evidence that this Nightingale model has current relevance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sister (Sr.) Marie Simone Roach, of the Sisters of St. Martha of Antigonish, Nova Scotia, died at the Motherhouse on 2 July 2016 at the age of 93, leaving behind a rich legacy of theoretical and practical work in the areas of care, caring and nursing ethics. She was a humble soul whose deep and scholarly thinking thrust her onto the global nursing stage where she will forever be tied to a central concept in nursing, caring, through her Six Cs of Caring model. In Canada, she was the lead architect of the Canadian Nurses Association's first code of ethics, and her influence on revisions to it is still profound more than 35 years later. In this paper, four global scholars in nursing and ethics are invited to reflect on Sr. Simone's contribution to nursing and health‐care, and we link her work to nursing and health‐care going forward. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

HALLETT C and WAGNER L. Nursing Inquiry 2011; 18: 359-368 Promoting the health of Europeans in a rapidly changing world: a historical study of the implementation of World Health Organisation policies by the Nursing and Midwifery Unit, European Regional Office, 1970-2003 The World Health Organisation (WHO) was inaugurated in 1948. Formed in a period of post-war devastation, WHO aimed to develop and meet goals that would rebuild the health of shattered populations. The historical study reported here examined the work of the Nursing and Midwifery Unit (NMU) of WHO's European Regional Office during the later part of the twentieth century. The study examined archive sources lodged at the NMU archive. The sources included manuscripts relating to important NMU initiatives, reports and papers published by WHO, and a range of secondary sources. The study identified three main driving forces in the work of the NMU of the European Regional Office of WHO. One of the strongest of these was a drive to develop and promote the nursing profession within the countries of the European Region. The second was the promulgation and implementation of the positive public health strategies of WHO, particularly its '38 Targets for Health for All by the Year 2000'. The third focussed on securing equity across the European continent and on promoting the development of the nursing professions in poorer and less-developed countries. The study concludes that the nursing professions in European states grew in strength and influence, and that the health of populations improved throughout the continent between 1970 and 2003. It discusses the extent to which the role of the NMU in these advances may have been significant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The term 'nurse' (hushi-'caring scholar') did not enter the Chinese language until the early 20th century. Modern nursing-a fundamentally Western notion popularized by Nightingale and introduced to China in 1884-profoundly changed the way care of the sick was practiced. For 65 years, until 1949, nursing developed in China as a transnational project, with Western and Chinese influences shaping the profession of nursing in ways that linger today. Co-authored by Chinese, Canadian, and American nurses, this paper examines the early stages of nursing in one province of China as an exemplar of the transnational nature of nursing development. By identifying sociopolitical influences on the early development of nursing in Shandong, the authors aimed not only to contribute to the nascent body of knowledge on China nursing history, but also to heighten readers' sensitivity to the existence of historical echoes, residue, and resonances in their own nursing practices. Tracing current issues, values, or practices back to their roots provides context and helps us to better understand the present. Whether we are aware of the details or not, the gestalt of nursing practice in a particular place has been shaped by its history-including in Shandong province in China., (© 2017 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

This historical study aims to refine understanding of the nature of nursing work. The study focuses on the 1880 crisis at Guy's Hospital in London to examine the nature and meaning of nursing work, particularly the concept of nursing work as many 'little things.' In this paper, an examination of Margaret Lonsdale's writing offers an original contribution to our understanding of the ways in which nursing work differs from medical practice. In this way, we use the late-nineteenth-century controversy at Guy's Hospital as a prism through which to examine the contested nature of nursing work. Lonsdale's ideas are corroborated by examination of writings by nurse leaders Florence Nightingale and Eva Luckes. Luckes, in particular, elaborated what was meant by nursing as the performance of a thousand little things, which are specific to nursing work. While physicians had been performing much of what was considered to be nursing work, nurses developed some of these and other interventions into a unique body of work characterized by meticulous attention to significant details. Some implications regarding current nursing practice are discussed., (© 2017 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

The article presents a call for papers for the annual history issue of the periodical "Nursing Inquiry." It invites submissions from historians of nursing or health-care on any topic of historical concern. Individual or themed submissions welcome. Interested parties are advised to contact Sioban Nelson for discussion on themed issues. Other contact information relative to the matter is presented.

In recent years, there has been increased interest in the role of religion in the reform of nursing during the mid-nineteenth century. However, less is known about how ‘party’ disputes between evangelicals and followers of the ‘Oxford Movement’ may have affected nursing. This study examines a proposal to create a nursing association for the Diocese of Lichfield in 1864, which leads to a public dispute concerning the ‘ecclesiastical’ nature of the organisation. Leading evangelicals in Derby campaigned against the idea of nurses belonging to a ‘sisterhood’. This resulted in two rival organisations being created in 1865. This paper reports upon the nature and origins of the dispute within the diocese, unsuccessful attempts to draw Florence Nightingale into the dispute and the relative success of the two institutions. The results of this research indicate that the importance of context and of place must be recognised when studying the history of nursing. This research is based mainly, upon newspaper reports, correspondence and miscellaneous sources, including biographies as there are few surviving records from the two organisations under scrutiny. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From the mid nineteenth to mid twentieth century sanatoria loomed large in the popular consciousness as the space for the treatment of tuberculosis (TB). A review of the historiography of sanatoria at the beginning of this paper shows that the nursing contribution to the care of TB patients is at best ignored and at worst attracts negative comment. Added to this TB nursing was not viewed as prestigious by contemporaries, leading to problems attracting recruits. Using a case study approach based on surviving archival material, this paper sets out to provide a glimpse of the work of TB nurses in a rural sanatorium at Westwood, Queensland, Australia. For the nurses geographical isolation was compounded by professional stagnation, which created a working environment influenced by friction and discord among the staff. It reveals how despite this, nurses coped with working in hostile conditions, to make the long stay of their patients, separated from their families and familiar life style more bearable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is based on research in progress focusing on the histories of mission hospitals in the rural communities of KwaZulu Natal, while also building on earlier research into the pluralism of medical systems within the South African Cape. Sources have been drawn from a range of historical documents, including medical and nursing journals, the archives of a number of medical missionary societies and of the Overseas Nursing Association, but the research has also been informed by oral histories of a broad cross-section of health professionals who practised in South Africa. A large literature search included a number of biographies and institutional histories. The paper will be divided into three parts--the first provides a brief background to colonialism and the early nursing history of South Africa; the second looks in more detail at the role played by missionary nurses in establishing nursing as a profession and providing training opportunities for African nurses. The final part contrasts missionary nursing with the supply of, and work done by nurses from the Overseas Nursing Association operating within their quite specific, colonial remit. This will show how the two contrasting professional spheres--one reflecting a fairly short-term commitment, the other, a much broader, 'vocational' involvement--may be seen to represent quite different colonial attitudes, and ultimately quite diverse outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Taking as its starting point Carr's view that historical narrative reflects the preoccupations of the time in which it is written and Foucault's concept of consensual historical discourse as the outcome of a social struggle in which the victor suppresses or at least diminishes contrary versions of historical events in favour of their own, this paper traces and discusses the historical narrative of British nursing in the Crimean war and, in particular, three competing narratives that have arisen in the latter half of the 20th century and the first decade of the 21st. These are the established narrative surrounding Florence Nightingale, the new narrative surrounding Mary Seacole and an Irish narrative surrounding the role of the Sisters of Mercy. It is argued that the increased vehemence of the debate surrounding these narratives is representative of the changes that have taken place in British society. However, we also argue that the Irish narrative and its critique are reflective of deep-rooted Anglo-Protestant attitudes articulated by Nightingale and uncritically accepted by subsequent historians even in modern British historiography., (© 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

The paper reveals that historically various socio-political factors, including gender, class, ethnicity, race, waves of colonization, decolonization, the civil and ethnic wars, the women's and labour movements, have influenced the development of nursing in Sri Lanka. However, literature presenting the development of nursing in Sri Lanka is sparse. All relevant journals and books published in the English and Sinhalese languages on nursing in Sri Lanka between the years 1878-2011 were examined. Because there are no nursing journals currently produced in Sri Lanka, CINAHL and Medline databases were accessed and relevant literature published in the English language on Sri Lanka was examined. Government, nurses' union and association reports, other unpublished reports and websites such as Google were also searched to access information related to the influence of gender, race, class, ethnicity, women's and labour movements in Sri Lanka. Poor pay, shortages of resources, failure in recruitment and retention and limited opportunity for career progression have acted as deterrents to persons entering and remaining in the nursing profession. Being non-British was a key issue in terms of race. Further, the shift from a colonized state to a welfare state resulted in a class shift from upper middle class to middle and lower class persons entering into nursing. Although there is a paucity of information available in the nursing literature, this analysis offers an intriguing insight into an angle that may be used to examine the influence of gender, ethnicity, class, race and the women's and labour movements in other contextual situations., (© 2012 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

When Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) came to power in 1933, the new Nazi government focused the German health system on their priorities such as the creation of a racially homogeneous society and the preparation of war. One of the measures to bring nursing under their control was the foundation of a new sisterhood. In 1934, Erich Hilgenfeldt (1897-1945), the ambitious head of the National Socialist People's Welfare Association (Nationalsozialistische Volkswohlfahrt), founded the National Socialist (NS) Sisterhood (Nationalsozialistische Schwesternschaft) to create an elite group that would work for the goals of the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, NSDAP). Hilgenfeldt proclaimed community nursing as a priority for NS Sisterhood nurses. Catholic and Protestant sisters, who were traditionally dedicated to community nursing, were to be gradually replaced. However, other competing priorities, such as hospital service for the training of junior nurses and work in conquered regions, as well as the lack of NS nursing personnel, hampered the expansion of community nursing. The paper also addresses areas for future research: everyday activities of NS nurses, the service of NS Sisterhood nurses for NSDAP organisations such as the elite racist paramilitary force SS (Schutzstaffel, Protective Squadron), and involvement in their crimes have hardly been investigated as yet.

Nurses have a long tradition of storytelling. Nurses in the New Zealand government's Backblocks Nursing Service, established in 1909 for settlers in remote rural areas, related narratives of personal experience in articles, conference papers and letters to their chief nurse that were published in the country's nursing journal. Analysis of the 16 stories published between 1910 and 1915 revealed 14 had a common storyline and structure. Structural elements included a call, arduous journey, arrival and reconnaissance, trial (difficult case or circumstance), resolution and homily. Using a literary folkloristics approach, this article argues that repetition of the story by nurses in different regions traditionalised it as a professional folktale, 'The nurse's odyssey'. It enabled nurses to debrief from difficult cases and write-into-being this new role and practice. Striking differences in the practice setting ensured the story's reportability, while clinical details connected writer and readers through a common professional aesthetic context and strengthened the story's credibility. For the chief nurse who was also a journal editor, publishing the stories allowed her to potentially attract nurses to the service while alerting them to its harsh realities, and show policy-makers the profession's value in meeting new health service needs.

Nursing history has been a much debated subject with a wide range of work from many countries discussing the profession's identity and questioning the nature of nursing and professional practice. Building upon a review of the recent developments in nursing history worldwide and on primary research that examined the structure of mandated nursing history courses in 14 nursing schools in the state of Santa Catarina, Brazil, this paper analyzes both the content and the pedagogical style applied. We postulate that the study of history offers an important opportunity for the development of student learning, and propose that more creative and dynamic teaching strategies be applied. We argue the need for professors to be active historical researchers, so they may meaningfully contribute to the development of local histories and enrich the professional identities of both nursing students and the profession. We conclude that historical education in nursing is limited by a traditional and universalist approach to nursing history, by the lack of relevant local sources or examples, and by the failure of historical education to be used as a vehicle to provide students with the intellectual tools for the development of professional understanding and self-identity.

In 1878 two 'Nightingale' nurses arrived in the British colony of Ceylon to initiate a training programme for indigenous women in the skills and values of what was then termed 'scientific nursing'. These two women were the first of a succession of British women who went to the colony to nurse in its hospitals and to train Ceylonese women for the profession. Using the official records of the colonial government held in the National Archives, Kew and the records of the Overseas Nursing Association in the Rhodes House Collection, Oxford, this paper explores both the professional and social experiences of these women. This paper also analyses the role that these representatives of the colonial state played in the development of an indigenous nursing profession and concludes that their presence in the colony ultimately left an ambiguous legacy. In their role as trainers of indigenous women, they furthered the development and spread of a Western nursing profession in the colony's hospitals. At the same time, however, their continuing dominance of training and the positions of responsibility was an inhibiting factor in the ability of indigenous nurses to organise and professionalise. Whereas the doctors, trained in the colony's Medical College, achieved registration as early as 1905, the nurses had to wait until 1949, a year after independence, before their qualification was recognised and protected. Nursing remained throughout the colonial period therefore, even more so than at the metropolitan centre, the 'Cinderella' of the medical professions.

From the 1870s to the 1920s Poor Law institutions in England developed from destinations of last resort to significant providers of health-care. As part of this process a general professionalisation of Poor Law work took place. The change was facilitated by wider social, philosophical and political influences in nineteenth century England. The introduction of trained nurses into the Poor Law was part of a diaspora of both ideas and people from voluntary institutions and organisations. Unrecognised in 1834, nurses eventually became the most numerous class of workhouse officers. This was not accomplished without dispute and acrimony. As a group and as individuals nurses were often at the centre of disputes. Utilising a social history framework and drawing on contemporary written sources, including Poor Law and nursing journals, this paper highlights the role played by Poor Law nurses in the diffusion of values and attitudes that helped to transform the workhouse regime from one of punishment to therapy.

This paper describes the influence of foreign nurses upon the development of modern healthcare services and the nursing profession in Iceland in the first three decades of the twentieth century. It represents a case study of how new ideas, traditions and practices migrated between countries and cultures in the twentieth century. Icelandic society was, at that time, still premodern in many ways. Healthcare institutions were almost nonexistent and the means of production were undeveloped. It was into this context that the idea of nursing as a professional activity was introduced. Groups of nurses, the Catholic Sisters of St Joseph of Chambéry and secular nurses, mainly from Denmark, came to the country to organize and provide healthcare services, of which nursing was of central importance. These groups were diasporas, in that they brought traditions and practices from other cultures. The Sisters of St Joseph built, owned and ran the first modern hospital in the country. The Danish nurses introduced nursing as a specialized field of work, in leprosy and tuberculosis nursing and by initiating public health nursing services. They were instrumental in promoting education as an important condition to becoming a nurse, and the development of an Icelandic nursing profession. These nurses were generally respected by the Icelandic people for their contributions and were received with interest and appreciation. The healthcare services introduced by these different groups of nurses reflected modern ways of living and a commitment to professionalism, which involved providing assistance to patients based on the best knowledge available and a philosophy of respect and care.

This paper presents a discourse analysis of publications of the Christian Reformed Church regarding its Rehoboth Mission near Gallup, New Mexico, among the Navajo. All issues of The Banner, Acts of Synod of the Christian Reformed Church, the Rehoboth Hospital Bulletin, and the Annual Report of the Rehoboth Mission from 1880 to the present were reviewed for references to health-care at Rehoboth from 1903 to 1943. Four religiously framed discourses were identified: discourses justifying provision of health-care at the mission, discourses of the Navajos as immature and potentially dangerous, needing to be civilized, discourses of cleanliness, and discourses of calling. This paper adds to a growing body of knowledge about religious frames within which nurses have practiced in North America.

The Diploma in Community Nursing at the University of Manchester began in 1959, after a long period of planning and negotiation. It was the earliest pre-registration nursing education programme in a British university. The paper reports on a historical study which examined its foundation and development. The history of the ‘Manchester Scheme’, as it came to be known, is placed into the context of wider reforms and modifications in British nursing education. The methods used for the study were a broad-based literature review, examination of material from the 1950s to the present day, five oral history interviews with some of those who were influential in developing the diploma, and the interpretation of relevant documentary source materials. The Diploma in Community Nursing at the University of Manchester was important and innovative in its time, combining as it did nurse and health visitor training with a university-based education. The paper traces the struggle to establish the course, which was largely due to the efforts of one charismatic individual, Fraser Brockington, Professor of Social and Preventive Medicine. It then goes on to examine the reforms and modifications the programme underwent from 1959 to 1969, as it was developed into the prototype for the ‘Bachelor of Nursing Degree’. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While a commitment to the development of nursing theory has been a significant force in nursing scholarship, particularly in the US, the authors have noted a recent trend among nurses in different countries to develop Foucauldian interpretations of nursing. The objective of this paper is to identify those publications by nurses that employ a Foucauldian perspective and to provide a useful summative review of these works to date, which illustrate the potential contribution of a Foucauldian reading of nursing. The authors have reviewed 27 publications written by nurses which present a Foucauldian analysis. These publications were issued between 1987 and 1998 in English, Portuguese and German. The most frequent concepts treated in the literature reviewed are power/knowledge, surveillance, discourse, discipline, resistance, docile bodies, clinical gaze, and panopticon. The literature reviewed illustrates that Foucault's concepts can have a profound impact on the way we conceive of nursing as a discipline and as a profession. Nursing care becomes a political event, nursing knowledge contributes to the dissemination of regimes of truth, and nurses, rather than being powerless, are perceived as professionals who exercise power over life in society. A Foucauldian reading of nursing enables nurses to move into a broader interdisciplinary and critical scholarship.

This historical study aims to explain how the transition from student nurse service to fully qualified "graduate nurse" service in the United States in the 20th century affected assumptions about fundamental patient care in hospital wards and provide historical context for current apprenticeship programs. Through analysis of documents from 1920 when student nurse service, a nurse apprentice model, was the norm to 1960 when the nurse apprentice model was waning in favor of registered nurse service, this study found that the replacement of student nurses with registered nurses led to weakened standardization of fundamental bedside care and the introduction of large numbers of unlicensed nursing assistants. While student nurses could perform all the functions of fully qualified graduate nurses, nursing assistants could not, resulting in a separation of fundamental nursing care from the professional nurse role and changes in assumptions and attitudes toward fundamental care. These changes had a negative effect on fundamental nursing care. New apprenticeship programs provide opportunities for improvement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper undertakes a reading of nursing history as a constituent discourse. The discursive power of history, with its active mining of the archives of the past to construct a narrative of contemporary force and power, is emphasized. The essay begins with the nineteenth-century and early twentieth-century professional histories that celebrated nursing's evolutionary achievements. It then moves to the sociologically influenced revisions of the 1960s, and the feminist and critical revisions of the 1980s and 1990s. We then turn to recent scholarship and examine the call for nursing history to participate in the theoretical construction of the discipline of nursing. The observation is made that, in the name of relevance, contemporary nursing history appears to be expected to contribute to the development of nursing knowledge, just as early histories contributed to the professionalization of nursing. The teleological assumptions of both nursing history and nursing theory are then argued to set the limits of nursing discourse, with detrimental effect on scholarship.

The historical analysis of the complex and often contradictory views of Florence Nightingale regarding the rights of women is explored in this paper. Feminism and nursing are often viewed as contradictory and antithetical. The relationship between the two is examined through the link between Florence Nightingale and her contemporary, Barbara Leigh-Smith Bodichon. Leigh-Smith was founder and primary financier of The English Women's Journal that provided a public platform for the major feminist writings of the period. Its offices in Langham Place formed the administrative centre of the Society for Promoting the Employment of Women. Bodichon and her colleagues were often referred to as the 'Langham Place Group'. Unexplored prior to this study was the fact that Leigh-Smith and Nightingale were first cousins. Utilizing techniques of internal and external criticism, primary and secondary sources were surveyed relating to Nightingale and Leigh-Smith. The views of both women on the subjects of the rights of women, women's suffrage, the employment status of women, and the societal place of women are compared and contrasted. The legacy of both Leigh-Smith and Nightingale to twentieth century feminism, the status of women, and the profession of nursing is then elaborated. The exploration of the views of both Nightingale and Leigh-Smith is important to gain a clearer understanding of the existing relationship between nursing and feminism. In keeping with the aims of feminist inquiry, women's experiences, specifically those of Nightingale and Leigh-Smith, are the major 'objects' of investigation. The concluding interpretation provides a synthesis that is emancipatory as well as knowledge generative.

This study examines the Canadian Code of Ethics for Registered Nurses as a discursive mechanism for shaping nurses' professional identity using a Foucauldian lens. Nurses are considered essential in healthcare, yet the nursing profession has struggled to be recognized for its discipline‐specific knowledge and expertise and, as such, has remained the subject of and subject to the dominant discourses within healthcare and society generally. Developing a professional identity in nursing begins after the necessary education and training are achieved and embodies the profession's history, values, code of ethics, and expectations of the profession that distinguish it from other professions. Since nurses' professional identity is shaped through discourse, it raises the question of whether there are spaces to reconceptualize nurses' subject position within health care. Since professional identity is considered the embodiment of knowledge and practice, the code of ethics bears examination both for its effect on nurses' professional identity and as a potential site from which to challenge hegemonic assumptions. This article discusses the concept of professional identity in nursing and its development through the discursive formations in the code of ethics. The sources of power/knowledge are examined as both mechanisms of control and as spaces for change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study uses a Foucauldian discourse analysis to explore media reporting on the role of nurses as being consistently positioned 'heroes' during COVID‐19. In so doing, it highlights multiple intersecting discourses at play, with the caring discourse acting as a central one in negatively impacting nurses' ability to advocate for safe working conditions during a public health emergency. Drawing on media reports during the outbreak of COVID‐19 in Ontario, Canada in the spring of 2020 and on historical information from SARS, this study seeks to establish caring as a discourse and examine if the caring discourse impedes nurses' ability to protect themselves from harm. The results of this analysis explicate how public media discourses that position nurses as caring, sacrificial and heroic may have impacted their ability to maintain their personal safety as a result of the expectations put upon the nursing profession. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Histories of nursing that disregard their linkage to broader historical movements often lead to historically detached versions of nursing identity that omit the perspective of their sources and the ideas of their time. Drawing on materials retrieved through a multilayered research strategy comprising internal and external sources, this article examines the development of a nursing identity in Chile during the period starting in the 1950s through the early 2000s. We analysed the sociopolitical contexts in which the nursing profession grew, the changing direction of its role and how the nursing identity transformed itself. Through the use of historical sources and oral testimonies, we aim to give a nuanced account of how the history of public health and that of the country more broadly changed the object of identification of nurses, creating only relatively recently a sense of nursing community. Processes of identification, fragmentation and integration are highlighted, which challenge usual notions of history as a linear process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of nursing began in Poland much later than it did elsewhere, for instance in the United Kingdom, the United States, or Germany, and it came up against difficult conditions. After a brief twenty‐year period of development between 1918 and 1939, it almost stalled during the war (1939–45), only to be followed by nearly twenty years of chaos. Nursing started to come out of this difficult period at the beginning of the 1960s. The turn of the 21st century saw the emergence of extensive professional development and training opportunities for nurses. This change was brought about as much by political, social and economic issues, health care requirements, and the advancement of science, medicine, the birth of humanitarism, the growth of the feminist movement, the European Agreement on the Instruction and Education of Nurses, the WHO European Strategy for Nursing and Midwifery Education, the Bologna declaration, as well as the activities undertaken by the European Union, the International Council of Nurses, the American and Polish Red Cross, the Rockefeller Foundation, the Polish Association of Nurses, and the professional self‐governing body. The transformation of nursing into an independent profession was further boosted by physicians deeply involved in the issue and female pioneers of nursing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to explore the influences, processes and environments that shaped the practice of European nurses for indigenous New Zealand (NZ) Māori communities who were being overwhelmed by introduced infectious diseases. Historical data were accessed from multiple archival sources and analysed through the lens of colonial theory. Through their work early last century, NZ nurses actively gained professional status and territory through their work with Māori. By living and working alongside Māori, they learned to practise in new ways that influenced Māori health. By developing a new role in new professional territory, nurses extended their practice to include health promotion as well as disease prevention. Māori survival from epidemics improved, and the population grew over that period. For Māori, however, Eurocentric care alleviated their immediate health problems, but the detrimental impact of the mechanisms of colonisation overall has continued to the present day. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the Nazi regime (1933-1945), more than 300 000 psychiatric patients were killed. The well-calculated killing of chronic mentally 'ill' patients was part of a huge biopolitical program of well-established scientific, eugenic standards of the time. Among the medical personnel implicated in these assassinations were nurses, who carried out this program through their everyday practice. However, newer research raises suspicions that psychiatric patients were being assassinated before and after the Nazi regime, which, I hypothesize, implies that the motives for these killings must be investigated within psychiatric practice itself. An investigation of the impact of the interplay between the notes left by nurses and those by psychiatrists illustrates the active role of the psychiatric medical record in the killing of these patients. Using theoretical insights from Michel Foucault and philosopher Giorgio Agamben and analyzing one part of a particularly rich patient file found in the Langenhorn Psychiatric Asylum in the city of Hamburg, I demonstrate the role of the record in both constructing and deconstructing patient subjectivities. De-subjectifying patients condemned them to specific zones in the asylum within which they were reduced to their 'bare life'- a precondition for their physical assassination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BROOKS J. Nursing Inquiry 2011; 18: 226-234 Managing the burden: nursing older people in England, 1955-1980 This article is a historical exploration of the work undertaken, by both nurses in training and qualified ward level nurses, on older adult wards of the National Health Service hospitals in England between 1955 and 1980. It focuses particularly on the personal care given to older patients, including pressure area care, the importance of meal times for the patients and the central role of the ward sister in the administration of food, and the training of the student nurses. These key practice themes will be examined in turn and related to the realities that the nurses faced in terms of the shortages of equipment, expertise, training, and also the low status accorded to the care of older people. It will be demonstrated that the care received by the elderly patients was often uncaring, routine and regimented. However, the blame for this treatment cannot be laid solely at the feet of the nurses themselves, but the system which conspired against them and their patients - a system, based on a prevailing attitude in which the older adult population was considered to be a 'burden', or the 'cuckoos in the nest of the acute general hospital' (). It is hoped that this article will contribute to the emerging and important area of the history of nursing work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For nurses of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, cleanliness was often seen as a virtue next to godliness. For missionary nurses, this analogy took on multiple meanings. This study focuses on discourses of cleanliness at one site of missionary nursing in the early twentieth century: the Rehoboth Mission and its hospital, which provided health-care to the Navajo in the southwestern USA from 1903 to 1965. Data sources included denominational publications, institutional records, correspondence, questionnaires and interviews of the Dutch-American missionary nurses who practiced at the Rehoboth Mission. Discourse analysis was conducted on references to cleanliness, hygiene and sanitation in these texts. Secondary discourses of embodiment in daily practice, initiation and assimilation, caring, ignorance, environmental factors and gendered work were identified and analyzed. The study interrogates the whiteness of the nurses' dominant culture and sheds light on nurses' relationships with normative discursive frames that reflect and perpetuate inequalities, discredit non-dominant practices, and leave little room for competing discourses. It also illustrates a blurring of religion and health-care, and the need for a reflective and informed stance as a basis for cultural competence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The boundaries between medicine, religion, nursing and domestic service were fluid in mid-nineteenth-century England. The traditional religious understanding of illness conflicted with the newer understanding of anatomically based disease, the Anglican sisters were drawing a line between professional nursing and the traditional role of nurses as domestic servants who looked after sick people as one of their many duties, and doctors were looking for more knowledgeable nurses who could carry out their orders competently. This prosopographical study of the over 200 women who served as government nurses during the Crimean War 1854-56 describes the status of nursing and provides a picture of the religious and social structure of Britain in the 1850s. It also illustrates how religious, political and social factors affected the development of the new nursing. The Crimean War nurses can be divided into four major groups: volunteer secular ladies, Roman Catholic nuns, Anglican sisters and working-class hospital nurses. Of these four groups I conclude that it was the experienced working-class nurses who had the greatest influence on the organization of the new nursing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A group of German physicians propagated ‘scientific nursing’ in the 1890s in order to establish it as a medical specialty. Martin Mendelsohn (1860–1930) emerged as the figurehead of this movement. One of his earliest key publications on this topic appeared in 1890, with a second edition in 1892. It was entitled The comfort of the sick ( Der Comfort des Kranken). The comparison with Florence Nightingale's (1820–1910) Notes on nursing led to the conclusion that Mendelsohn's book constitutes a hitherto unknown and unacknowledged reception of her ideas. Mendelsohn took great pains to demonstrate a medical tradition of ‘scientific nursing’ dating from antiquity. However, chapters 2–8 distinctly show a large number of passages that correspond to the Notes on nursing. Acknowledging Florence Nightingale would not have served Mendelsohn's interests. In his view, the role assigned to nurses was much more restricted than in the Notes on nursing and entailed merely carrying out physicians’ orders. Consequently, the development of nursing in England was not an example to be followed. Although the ‘scientific nursing’ movement failed, its ideas on the role of nurses were incorporated into the regulations of the Prussian state nursing examination of 1907. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The power of care: the Women’s Hospital 1884–1914 The effectiveness of late-nineteenth-century nursing care should not be underestimated. The archive of patient records at Melbourne’s Women’s Hospital reveals a commitment to patient care that more often than not made the difference between life and death in the recovery from major surgery or post-partum infection. These records suggest the need to reassess the role of medical care in the mortality transition after 1850. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Compassion in healthcare has received significant attention recently, on an international scale, with concern raised about its absence during clinical interactions. As a concept, compassionate care has been linked to nursing. We examined historical discourse on this topic, to understand and situate current debates on compassionate care as a hallmark of high‐quality services. Documents we looked at illustrated how responsibility for delivering compassionate care cannot be consigned to individual nurses. Health professionals must have the right environmental circumstances to be able to provide and engage in compassionate interactions with patients and their relatives. Hence, although compassionate care has been presented as a straightforward solution when crisis faces health services, this discourse, especially in policy documents, has often failed to acknowledge the system‐level issues associated with its provision. This has resulted in simplistic presentations of 'compassion' as inexpensive and the responsibility of individual nurses, a misleading proposal that risks devaluing the energy and resources required to deliver compassionate care. It also overlooks the need for organisations, not just individuals, to be charged with upholding its provision. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]