Search

Abstract Global population growth and land development are highly imbalanced, marked by 43% of population increase but 150% of built-up area expansion from 1990 to 2018. This results in the widely concerned ghost city phenomenon and runs against the sustainable development goals. Existing studies identify ghost cities by population densities, but ignore the spatial heterogeneity of land carrying capacities (LCC). Accordingly, this study proposes a general concept termed underload city to define cities carrying fewer people and lower economic strength than their LCC. The underload city essentially describes imbalanced human-land relationship and is understood in a broader context than the usually applied ghost city. In this study, very high-resolution satellite images are analyzed to obtain land functional structures, and further combined with population and GDP data to derive LCC. We empirically identify eight underload cities among 81 major Chinese cities, differing from previous findings of ghost cities. Accordingly, the proposed underload city considers heterogeneous human-land relationships when assessing city loads and contributes to sustainable city developments.