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Despite intense ongoing research efforts, the etiology of psychiatric disorders remains incompletely understood. Among biological factors playing a role in Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) and Anxiety Disorders (ANX), emerging evidence points to the relevance of different types of glia cells and efficient neuron-glia interactions. Here, we review recent findings highlighting the involvement of central nervous system (CNS) glia in MDD and ANX etiology and treatment response. Additionally, several relatively underexplored topics will be discussed: (1) glial response to non-pharmacological therapies, (2) impact of early life adversity on glia, (3) influence of lifestyle factors on glia in the context of MDD and ANX, and (4) monitoring glial functions in patients. It can be concluded that despite the sequence of events is still unclear, alterations in glial cell types are common and somewhat overlapping in ANX, MDD and corresponding animal models. Furthermore, glia are responsive to a variety of treatment and lifestyle options. Looking forward, new research developments can lead to novel types of therapeutic or symptom-relieving approaches targeting glia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Sadness involves reduction of cortical control over evolutionarily ancient brain systems. • Basic emotion theorists have identified a SADNESS circuit, based on animal research. • Psychological constructionists have identified patterns of activity that dependent on context. • Competing models may relate to different levels on a phylogenetic hierarchy. • Dedicated funding to facilitate collaborative and transdisciplinary opportunities is needed. Sadness is typically characterized by raised inner eyebrows, lowered corners of the mouth, reduced walking speed, and slumped posture. Ancient subcortical circuitry provides a neuroanatomical foundation, extending from dorsal periaqueductal grey to subgenual anterior cingulate, the latter of which is now a treatment target in disorders of sadness. Electrophysiological studies further emphasize a role for reduced left relative to right frontal asymmetry in sadness, underpinning interest in the transcranial stimulation of left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex as an antidepressant target. Neuroimaging studies – including meta-analyses – indicate that sadness is associated with reduced cortical activation, which may contribute to reduced parasympathetic inhibitory control over medullary cardioacceleratory circuits. Reduced cardiac control may – in part – contribute to epidemiological reports of reduced life expectancy in affective disorders, effects equivalent to heavy smoking. We suggest that the field may be moving toward a theoretical consensus, in which different models relating to basic emotion theory and psychological constructionism may be considered as complementary, working at different levels of the phylogenetic hierarchy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tryptophan hydroxylase 2 (TPH2) is the rate-limiting enzyme in brain serotonin synthesis. The TPH2 gene has frequently been investigated in relation to psychiatric morbidity. The aim of the present review is to integrate results from association studies between TPH2 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and various psychiatric disorders, which we furthermore quantified with meta-analysis. We reviewed 166 studies investigating 69 TPH2 SNPs in a broad range of psychiatric disorders, including over 30,000 patients. According to our meta-analysis, TPH2 polymorphisms show strongest associations with mood disorders, suicide (attempt) and schizophrenia. Despite small effect sizes, we conclude that TPH2 SNPs in the coding and non-coding areas (rs4570625, rs11178997, rs11178998, rs10748185, rs1843809, rs4290270, rs17110747) are each associated with one or more psychopathological conditions. Our findings highlight the possible common serotonergic mechanisms of the investigated psychiatric disorders. Yet, the functional relevance of most TPH2 polymorphisms is unclear. Characterizing how exactly the different TPH2 variants influence the serotonergic neurotransmission is a next necessary step in understanding the psychiatric disorders where serotonin is implicated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]