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Previous behavioral, clinical, and neuroimaging studies suggest that the neural substrates of adaptation of saccadic eye movements involve, beyond the central role of the cerebellum, several, still incompletely determined, cortical areas. Furthermore, no neuroimaging study has yet tackled the differences between saccade lengthening ("forward adaptation") and shortening ("backward adaptation") and neither between their two main components, i.e. error processing and oculomotor changes. The present fMRI study was designed to fill these gaps. Blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) signal and eye movements of 24 healthy volunteers were acquired while performing reactive saccades under 4 conditions repeated in short blocks of 16 trials: systematic target jump during the saccade and in the saccade direction (forward: FW) or in the opposite direction (backward: BW), randomly directed FW or BW target jump during the saccade (random: RND) and no intra-saccadic target jump (stationary: STA). BOLD signals were analyzed both through general linear model (GLM) approaches applied at the whole-brain level and through sensitive Multi-Variate Pattern Analyses (MVPA) applied to 34 regions of interest (ROIs) identified from independent 'Saccade Localizer' functional data. Oculomotor data were consistent with successful induction of forward and backward adaptation in FW and BW blocks, respectively. The different analyses of voxel activation patterns (MVPAs) disclosed the involvement of 1) a set of ROIs specifically related to adaptation in the right occipital cortex, right and left MT/MST, right FEF and right pallidum; 2) several ROIs specifically involved in error signal processing in the left occipital cortex, left PEF, left precuneus, Medial Cingulate cortex (MCC), left inferior and right superior cerebellum; 3) ROIs specific to the direction of adaptation in the occipital cortex and MT/MST (left and right hemispheres for FW and BW, respectively) and in the pallidum of the right hemisphere (FW). The involvement of the left PEF and of the (left and right) occipital cortex were further supported and qualified by the whole brain GLM analysis: clusters of increased activity were found in PEF for the RND versus STA contrast (related to error processing) and in the left (right) occipital cortex for the FW (BW) versus STA contrasts [related to the FW (BW) direction of error and/or adaptation]. The present study both adds complementary data to the growing literature supporting a role of the cerebral cortex in saccadic adaptation through feedback and feedforward relationships with the cerebellum and provides the basis for improving conceptual frameworks of oculomotor plasticity and of its link with spatial cognition. ispartof: NEUROIMAGE vol:262 ispartof: location:United States status: published

Recent years have witnessed a massive push towards reproducible research in neuroscience. Unfortunately, this endeavor is often challenged by the large diversity of tools used, project-specific custom code and the difficulty to track all user-defined parameters. NeuroPycon is an open-source multi-modal brain data analysis toolkit which provides Python-based template pipelines for advanced multi-processing of MEG, EEG, functional and anatomical MRI data, with a focus on connectivity and graph theoretical analyses. Importantly, it provides shareable parameter files to facilitate replication of all analysis steps. NeuroPycon is based on the NiPype framework which facilitates data analyses by wrapping many commonly-used neuroimaging software tools into a common Python environment. In other words, rather than being a brain imaging software with is own implementation of standard algorithms for brain signal processing, NeuroPycon seamlessly integrates existing packages (coded in python, Matlab or other languages) into a unified python framework. Importantly, thanks to the multi-threaded processing and computational efficiency afforded by NiPype, NeuroPycon provides an easy option for fast parallel processing, which critical when handling large sets of multi-dimensional brain data. Moreover, its flexible design allows users to easily configure analysis pipelines by connecting distinct nodes to each other. Each node can be a Python-wrapped module, a user-defined function or a well-established tool (e.g. MNE-Python for MEG analysis, Radatools for graph theoretical metrics, etc.). Last but not least, the ability to use NeuroPycon parameter files to fully describe any pipeline is an important feature for reproducibility, as they can be shared and used for easy replication by others. The current implementation of NeuroPycon contains two complementary packages: The first, called ephypype, includes pipelines for electrophysiology analysis and a command-line interface for on the fly pipeline creation. Current implementations allow for MEG/EEG data import, pre-processing and cleaning by automatic removal of ocular and cardiac artefacts, in addition to sensor or source-level connectivity analyses. The second package, called graphpype, is designed to investigate functional connectivity via a wide range of graph-theoretical metrics, including modular partitions. The present article describes the philosophy, architecture, and functionalities of the toolkit and provides illustrative examples through interactive notebooks. NeuroPycon is available for download via github (https://github.com/neuropycon) and the two principal packages are documented online (https://neuropycon.github.io/ephypype/index.html. and https://neuropycon.github.io/graphpype/index.html). Future developments include fusion of multi-modal data (eg. MEG and fMRI or intracranial EEG and fMRI). We hope that the release of NeuroPycon will attract many users and new contributors, and facilitate the efforts of our community towards open source tool sharing and development, as well as scientific reproducibility.

International audience; How movements are continuously adapted to physiological and environmental changes is a fundamental question in systems neuroscience. While many studies have elucidated the mechanisms which underlie short-term sensorimotor adaptation (∼10-30 min), how these motor memories are maintained over longer-term (>3-5 days) -and thanks to which neural systems-is virtually unknown. Here, we examine in healthy human participants whether the temporo-parietal junction (TPJ) is causally involved in the induction and/or the retention of saccadic eye movements' adaptation. Single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (spTMS) was applied while subjects performed a ∼15min size-decrease adaptation task of leftward reactive saccades. A TMS pulse was delivered over the TPJ in the right hemisphere (rTPJ) in each trial either 30, 60, 90 or 120 msec (in 4 separate adaptation sessions) after the saccade onset. In two control groups of subjects, the same adaptation procedure was achieved either alone (No-TMS) or combined with spTMS applied over the vertex (SHAM-TMS). While the timing of spTMS over the rTPJ did not significantly affect the speed and immediate after-effect of adaptation, we found that the amount of adaptation retention measured 10 days later was markedly larger (42%) than in both the No-TMS (21%) and the SHAM-TMS (11%) control groups. These results demonstrate for the first time that the cerebral cortex is causally involved in maintaining long-term oculomotor memories.

International audience; : Eye movements are a constant and essential component of natural vision, yet, most of our knowledge about the human visual system comes from experiments that restrict them. This experimental constraint is mostly in place to control visual stimuli presentation and to avoid artifacts in non-invasive measures of brain activity, however, this limitation can be overcome with intracranial EEG (iEEG) recorded from epilepsy patients. Moreover, the high-frequency components of the iEEG signal (between about 50 and 150Hz) can provide a proxy of population-level spiking activity in any cortical area during free-viewing. We combined iEEG with high precision eye-tracking to study fine temporal dynamics and functional specificity in the fusiform face (FFA) and visual word form area (VWFA) while patients inspected natural pictures containing faces and text. We defined the first local measure of visual (electrophysiological) responsiveness adapted to free-viewing in humans: amplitude modulations in the high-frequency activity range (50-150Hz) following fixations (fixation-related high-frequency response). We showed that despite the large size of receptive fields in the ventral occipito-temporal cortex, neural activity during natural vision of realistic cluttered scenes is mostly dependent upon the category of the foveated stimulus - suggesting that category-specificity is preserved during free-viewing and that attention mechanisms might filter out the influence of objects surrounding the fovea.

International audience; : The exact role of the left ventral occipitotemporal cortex (VOTC) during the initial stages of reading acquisition is a hotly debated issue, especially regarding the comparative effect of learning on early stimulus-dependent vs. later task-dependent processes. We show that this controversy can be solved with high-temporal resolution intracerebral EEG recordings of the VOTC. We measured High-Frequency Activity (50-150Hz) as a proxy of population-level spiking activity while participants learned Japanese Katakana symbols, and found that learning primarily affects top-down/task-dependent neural processing, after a few minutes only. In contrast, adaptation of early bottom-up/stimulus-dependent processing takes several days to adapt and provides the basis for fluent reading. Such evidence that two consecutive stages of neural processing, stimulus- and task-dependent are differentially affected by learning, can reconcile seemingly opposite hypotheses on the role of the VOTC during reading acquisition.

International audience; The relationship between neural oscillations recorded at various spatial scales remains poorly understood partly due to an overall dearth of studies utilizing simultaneous measurements. In an effort to study quantitative markers of attention during reading, we performed simultaneous magnetoencephalography (MEG) and intracranial electroencephalography (iEEG) recordings in four epileptic patients. Patients were asked to attend to a specific color when presented with an intermixed series of red words and green words, with words of a given color forming a cohesive story. We analyzed alpha, beta, and gamma band oscillatory responses to the word presentation and compared the strength and spatial organization of those responses in both electrophysiological recordings. Time-frequency analysis of iEEG revealed a network of clear attention-modulated high gamma band (50-150 Hz) power increases and alpha/beta (9-25 Hz) suppressions in response to the words. In addition to analyses at the sensor level, MEG time-frequency analysis was performed at the source level using a sliding window beamformer technique. Strong alpha/beta suppressions were observed in MEG reconstructions, in tandem with iEEG effects. While the MEG counterpart of high gamma band enhancement was difficult to interpret at the sensor level in two patients, MEG time-frequency source reconstruction revealed additional activation patterns in accordance with iEEG results. Importantly, iEEG allowed us to confirm that several sources of gamma band modulation observed with MEG were indeed of cortical origin rather than EMG muscular or ocular artifact.

A substantial body of evidence documents massive reorganization of primary sensory and motor cortices following hand amputation, the extent of which is correlated with phantom limb pain. Many therapies for phantom limb pain are based upon the idea that plastic changes after amputation are maladaptive and attempt to normalize representations of cortical areas adjacent to the hand area. Recent data suggest, however, that higher levels of phantom pain are associated with stronger local activity and more structural integrity in the missing hand area rather than with reorganization of neighbouring body parts. While these models appear to be mutually exclusive they could co-exist, and one reason for the apparent discrepancy between them might be that no single study has examined the organisation of lip, elbow, and hand movements in the same participants. In this study we thoroughly examined the 3D anatomy of the central sulcus and BOLD responses during movements of the hand, elbow, and lips using MRI techniques in 11 upper-limb amputees and 17 healthy control subjects. We observed different reorganizational patterns for all three body parts as the former hand area showed few signs of reorganization, but the lip and elbow representations reorganized and shifted towards the hand area. We also found that poorer voluntary control and higher levels of pain in the phantom limb were powerful drivers of the lip and elbow topological changes. In addition to providing further support for the maladaptative plasticity model, we demonstrate for the first time that motor capacities of the phantom limb correlate with post-amputation reorganization, and that this reorganization is not limited to the face and hand representations but also includes the proximal upper-limb.

International audience; Insular and SII cortices have been consistently shown by PET, fMRI, EPs, and MEG techniques to be activated bilaterally by a nociceptive stimulation. The aim of the present study was to refer to, and to compare within a common stereotactic space, the nociceptive responses obtained in humans by (i) PET, (ii) fMRI, (iii) dipole modeling of scalp LEPs, and (iv) intracerebral recordings of LEPs. PET, fMRI, and scalp LEPs were obtained from normal subjects during thermal pain. Operculoinsular LEPs were obtained from 13 patients using deep brain electrodes implanted for presurgical evaluation of drug-resistant epilepsy. Whatever the technique, we obtained responses which were located bilaterally in the insular and SII cortices. In electrophysiological responses (LEPs) the SII insular contribution peaked between 150 and 250 ms poststimulus and corresponded to the earliest portions of the whole cerebral response. Group analysis of PET and fMRI data showed highly consistent responses contralateral to stimulation. On single-subject analysis, LEPs and fMRI activations were concentrated in relatively restricted volumes even though spatial sampling was quite different for both techniques. Despite our multimodal approach, however, it was not possible to separate insular from SII activities. Individual variations in the anatomy and function of SII and insular cortices may explain this limitation. This multimodal study provides, however, cross-validated spatial and temporal information on the pain-related processes occurring in the operculoinsular region, which thus appears as a major site for the early cortical pain encoding in the human brain.

Determining the anatomical source of brain activity non-invasively measured from EEG or MEG sensors is challenging. In order to simplify the source localization problem, many techniques introduce the assumption that current sources lie on the cortical surface. Another common assumption is that this current flow is orthogonal to the cortical surface, thereby approximating the orientation of cortical columns. However, it is not clear which cortical surface to use to define the current source locations, and normal vectors computed from a single cortical surface may not be the best approximation to the orientation of cortical columns. We compared three different surface location priors and five different approaches for estimating dipole vector orientation, both in simulations and visual and motor evoked MEG responses. We show that models with source locations on the white matter surface and using methods based on establishing correspondences between white matter and pial cortical surfaces dramatically outperform models with source locations on the pial or combined pial/white surfaces and which use methods based on the geometry of a single cortical surface in fitting evoked visual and motor responses. These methods can be easily implemented and adopted in most M/EEG analysis pipelines, with the potential to significantly improve source localization of evoked responses.

International audience; Graph theory enables the study of systems by describing those systems as a set of nodes and edges. Graph theory has been widely applied to characterize the overall structure of data sets in the social, technological, and biological sciences, including neuroscience. Modular structure decomposition enables the definition of sub-networks whose components are gathered in the same module and work together closely, while working weakly with components from other modules. This processing is of interest for studying memory, a cognitive process that is widely distributed. We propose a new method to identify modular structure in task-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) networks. The modular structure was obtained directly from correlation coefficients and thus retained information about both signs and weights. The method was applied to functional data acquired during a yes-no odor recognition memory task performed by young and elderly adults. Four response categories were explored: correct (Hit) and incorrect (False alarm, FA) recognition and correct and incorrect rejection. We extracted time series data for 36 areas as a function of response categories and age groups and calculated condition-based weighted correlation matrices. Overall, condition-based modular partitions were more homogeneous in young than elderly subjects. Using partition similarity-based statistics and a posteriori statistical analyses, we demonstrated that several areas, including the hippocampus, caudate nucleus, and anterior cingulate gyrus, belonged to the same module more frequently during Hit than during all other conditions. Modularity values were negatively correlated with memory scores in the Hit condition and positively correlated with bias scores (liberal/conservative attitude) in the Hit and FA conditions. We further demonstrated that the proportion of positive and negative links between areas of different modules (i.e., the proportion of correlated and anti-correlated areas) accounted for most of the observed differences in signed modularity. Taken together, our results provided some evidence that the neural networks involved in odor recognition memory are organized into modules and that these modular partitions are linked to behavioral performance and individual strategies.

The current state of empirical investigations refers to consciousness as an all-or-none phenomenon. However, a recent theoretical account opens up this perspective by proposing a partial level (between nil and full) of conscious perception. In the well-studied case of single-word reading, short-lived exposure can trigger incomplete word-form recognition wherein letters fall short of forming a whole word in one's conscious perception thereby hindering word-meaning access and report. Hence, the processing from incomplete to complete word-form recognition straightforwardly mirrors a transition from partial to full-blown consciousness. We therefore hypothesized that this putative functional bottleneck to consciousness (i.e. the perceptual boundary between partial and full conscious perception) would emerge at a major key hub region for word-form recognition during reading, namely the left occipito-temporal junction. We applied a real-time staircase procedure and titrated subjective reports at the threshold between partial (letters) and full (whole word) conscious perception. This experimental approach allowed us to collect trials with identical physical stimulation, yet reflecting distinct perceptual experience levels. Oscillatory brain activity was monitored with magnetoencephalography and revealed that the transition from partial-to-full word-form perception was accompanied by alpha-band (7-11 Hz) power suppression in the posterior left occipito-temporal cortex. This modulation of rhythmic activity extended anteriorly towards the visual word form area (VWFA), a region whose selectivity for word-forms in perception is highly debated. The current findings provide electrophysiological evidence for a functional bottleneck to consciousness thereby empirically instantiating a recently proposed partial perspective on consciousness. Moreover, the findings provide an entirely new outlook on the functioning of the VWFA as a late bottleneck to full-blown conscious word-form perception.

International audience; It is now well established that communicators interpret others' mental states through what has been called "Theory of Mind" (ToM). From a linguistic-pragmatics perspective, this mentalizing ability is considered critical because it is assumed that the linguistic code in all utterances underdetermines the speaker's meaning, leaving a vital role for ToM to fill the gap. From a neuroscience perspective, understanding others' intentions has been shown to activate a neural ToM network that includes the right and left temporal parietal junction (rTPJ, lTPJ), the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) and the precuneus (PC). Surprisingly, however, there are no studies - to our knowledge - that aim to uncover a direct, on-line link between language processing and ToM through neuroimaging. This is why we focus on verbal irony, an obviously pragmatic phenomenon that compels a listener to detect the speaker's (dissociated, mocking) attitude (Wilson, 2009). In the present fMRI investigation, we compare participants' comprehension of 18 target sentences as contexts make them either ironic or literal. Consider an opera singer who tells her interlocutor: "Tonight we gave a superb performance!" when the performance in question was clearly awful (making the statement ironic) or very good (making the statement literal). We demonstrate that the ToM network becomes active while a participant is understanding verbal irony. Moreover, we demonstrate - through Psychophysiological Interactions (PPI) analyses - that ToM activity is directly linked with language comprehension processes. The paradigm, its predictions, and the reported results contrast dramatically with those from seven prior fMRI studies on irony.

International audience; The role of operculo-insular region in the processing of somato-sensory inputs, painful or not, is now well established. However, available maps from previous literature show a substantial overlap of cortical areas activated by these stimuli, and the region referred to as the "secondary somatosensory area (SII)" is widely distributed in the parietal operculum. Differentiating SII from posterior insula cortex, which is anatomically contiguous, is not easy, explaining why the "operculo-insular" label has been introduced to describe activations by somatosensory stimuli in this cortical region. Based on the recent cyto-architectural parcellation of the human insular/SII cortices (Eickhoff et al., 2006, Kurth et al., 2010), the present study investigates with functional MRI (fMRI), whether these structural subdivisions could subserve distinct aspects of discriminative somato-sensory functions, including pain. Responses to five types of stimuli applied on the left hand of 25 healthy volunteers were considered: i) tactile stimuli; ii) passive movements; iii) innocuous cold stimuli; iv) non-noxious warm and v) heat pain. Our results show different patterns of activation depending on the type of somato-sensory stimulation. The posterior part of SII (OP1 area), contralateral to stimuli, was the only sub-region activated by all type of stimuli and might therefore be considered as a common cortical target for different types of somato-sensory inputs. Proprioceptive stimulation by passive finger movements activated the posterior part of SII (OP1 sub-region) bilaterally and the contralateral median part of insula (PreCG and MSG). Innocuous cooling activated the contralateral posterior part of SII (OP1) and the dorsal posterior and median part of insula (OP2, PostCG). Pain stimuli induced the most widespread and intense activation that was bilateral in SII (OP1, OP4) and distributed to all sub-regions of contralateral insula (except OP2) and to the anterior part of the ipsilateral insula (PreCG, MSG, ASG). However, the posterior granular part of insula contralateral to stimulus (Ig area) and the anterior part of SII bilaterally (OP4) were specifically activated during pain stimulation. This raises the question whether these latter areas could be the anatomical substrate of the sensory-discriminative processing of thermal pain.

International audience; Odor-evoked activity in the olfactory bulb displays both spatial and temporal organization. The difficulty when assessing spatio-temporal dynamics of olfactory representation is to find a method that reconciles the appropriate resolution for both dimensions. Imaging methods based on optical recordings can reach high temporal and spatial resolution but are limited to the observation of the accessible dorsal surface. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) may be useful to overcome this limitation as it allows recording from the whole brain. In this study, we combined ultra fast imaging sequence and short stimulus duration to improve temporal resolution of odor-evoked BOLD responses. Short odor stimulations evoked high amplitude BOLD responses and patterns of activation were similar to those obtained in previous studies using longer stimulations. Moreover, short odor exposures prevented habituation processes. Analysis of the BOLD signal time course in the different areas of activation revealed that odorant response maps are not static entities but rather are temporally dynamic as reported by recent studies using optical imaging. These data demonstrated that fMRI is a non-invasive method which could represent a powerful tool to study not only the spatial dimension of odor representation but also the temporal dimension of information processing.

International audience; : Stimulus repetition can produce neural response attenuation in stimulus-category selective networks within the occipito-temporal lobe. It is hypothesized that this neural suppression reflects the functional sharpening of local neuronal assemblies which boosts information processing efficiency. This neural suppression phenomenon has been mainly reported during conditions of conscious stimulus perception. The question remains whether frequent stimuli processed in the absence of conscious perception also induce repetition suppression in those specialized networks. Using rare intracranial EEG recordings in the ventral occipito-temporal cortex (VOTC) of human epileptic patients we investigated neural repetition suppression in conditions of conscious and unconscious visual processing of words. To this end, we used an orthogonal design manipulating respectively stimulus repetition (frequent vs. unique stimuli) and conscious perception (masked vs. unmasked stimuli). By measuring the temporal dynamics of high-frequency broadband gamma activity in VOTC and testing for main and interaction effects, we report that early processing of words in word-form selective networks exhibits a temporal cascade of modulations by stimulus repetition and masking: neuronal attenuation initially is observed in response to repeated words (irrespective of consciousness), that is followed by a second modulation contingent upon word reportability (irrespective of stimulus repetition). Later on (>300ms post-stimulus), a significant effect of conscious perception on the extent of repetition suppression was observed. The temporal dynamics of consciousness, the recognition memory processes and their interaction revealed in this study advance our understanding of their contributions to the neural mechanisms of word processing in VOTC.

International audience; The human brain's ability to adapt to environmental changes is obvious in specific sensory domains of experts, and olfaction is one of the least investigated senses. As we have previously demonstrated that olfactory expertise is related to functional brain modifications, we investigated here whether olfactory expertise is also coupled with structural changes. We used voxel-based morphometry to compare the gray-matter volume in student and professional perfumers, as well as untrained control subjects, and accounted for all methodological improvements that have been recently developed to limit possible errors associated with image processing. In all perfumers, we detected an increase in gray-matter volume in the bilateral gyrus rectus/medial orbital gyrus (GR/MOG), an orbitofrontal area that surrounds the olfactory sulcus. In addition, gray-matter volume in the anterior PC and left GR/MOG was positively correlated with experience in professional perfumers. We concluded that the acute olfactory knowledge acquired through extensive olfactory training leads to the structural reorganization of olfactory brain areas.

International audience; The operculo-insular cortex has been recently pointed out to be the main area of the pain matrix to be involved in the integration of pain intensity. This fMRI study specified the pattern of response to laser stimuli by focusing on this cortical area, by optimizing the temporal sampling and by investigating pain-related differences in the amplitudes and latencies of the BOLD responses. Canonical and temporal derivative hemodynamic response function (HRF) and finite impulse response (FIR) modeling provided consistent results. Amplitude of BOLD response discriminated painful from non-painful conditions in posterior and mid-insular cortices, bilaterally. Pain conditions were characterized by a shortened latency (as compared to non-painful conditions) in the anterior insula. In the functional organization of the insula, these results suggest a double dissociation that can be summarized as the 'where' and the 'when' of the BOLD response to pain. These results suggest that differences in the amplitude of the BOLD activity in the posterior and in the mid-insular cortices as well as shortened latency of the response in the anterior insula deal with discriminative processes related to painful conditions.

Animal and human studies have shown that the parietal and the ventral premotor cortices constitute the neural substrate of the so-called mirror system. The word “mirror” originally referred to the discovery of neurons in non-human primates whose visual response echoes their motor response. This account proposes that action understanding and imitation depend on a mechanism which activates directly our own motor system as we observe the actions of other agents ( Rizzolatti and Sinigaglia, 2010 ). Single unit recording experiments have also demonstrated that parietal neurons have predictive activity and discharge well ahead of a planned movement. Interestingly, patients with parietal damage can show impairments in their ability to imitate or understand an observed action, but they have also difficulties in monitoring early phases of their own movement planning, be it simple reaching movements or more complex object-directed actions. The fact that both deficits may co-occur after a parietal lesion raises the question whether this reflects the impairment of a common mechanism. To address this question we examined EEG activity in patients with selective lesions in the inferior parietal lobe (N = 6) who were requested to watch passively a video showing an actor grasping a colored object. The object's color cued the subject that the actor was about to move. We recorded the Readiness Potential (RP), a marker of motor preparation which also arises when preparing to observe an action ( Kilner et al., 2004 ). Parietal patients' performance was compared to that of neurologically normal subjects (n = 9) and patients with a ventral premotor cortex lesion (N = 4). We show that neurologically normal subjects and premotor patients exhibit a significant RP prior to the observed action, whereas no such RP is observed in parietal patients. Our results indicate that parietal cortex injury alters the ability to monitor the early planning phases not only of one's own actions but those of other agents as well. We speculate that parietal activity during action observation does not only or essentially reflect a mirroring process, as recently proposed by mirror neurons' account, but involve instead an anticipatory process which arises through prior learning and predictive mechanisms.

Evolution, as we currently understand it, strikes a delicate balance between animals' ancestral history and adaptations to their current niche. Similarities between species are generally considered inherited from a common ancestor whereas observed differences are considered as more recent evolution. Hence comparing species can provide insights into the evolutionary history. Comparative neuroimaging has recently emerged as a novel subdiscipline, which uses magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to identify similarities and differences in brain structure and function across species. Whereas invasive histological and molecular techniques are superior in spatial resolution, they are laborious, post-mortem, and oftentimes limited to specific species. Neuroimaging, by comparison, has the advantages of being applicable across species and allows for fast, whole-brain, repeatable, and multi-modal measurements of the structure and function in living brains and post-mortem tissue. In this review, we summarise the current state of the art in comparative anatomy and function of the brain and gather together the main scientific questions to be explored in the future of the fascinating new field of brain evolution derived from comparative neuroimaging., NeuroImage, 228, ISSN:1053-8119, ISSN:1095-9572