Search

Stem rot by Ganoderma is a disease of major concern for coconut farmers. Many species (G. applanatum, G. boninense, G. lucidum, G. zonatum) have been implicated as the causal agents of the disease. Despite its importance, systematics of the rot-associated Ganoderma remains uncertain and unresolved. Morphologically heterogeneous basidiomata of the putative pathogen(s) from infected palms in multiple disease sites were collected during an outbreak in the coastal state of India, Kerala. Morphological and molecular investigations revealed that these specimens were distinct from all the Ganoderma species so far identified and reported from coconut. Although with a close morphological resemblance to many Ganoderma species collected from palms, they exhibited unique genetics and geographic distribution patterns. We present a taxonomic reassessment of the species collected from infected coconut palms in India and also propose two new species, Ganoderma keralense and G. pseudoapplanatum. A taxonomic key to Ganoderma species on palms is given.

Agaricus xanthodermus and other species of the yellow-staining section Xanthodermatei are responsible for mushroom-related poisoning cases that require treatment. However, longstanding anecdotal evidence indicates that this species appears to exhibit considerable variation in toxicity, resulting in gastrointestinal irritation of varying severity in most cases. We quantified the amount of phenol, hydroquinone, and catechol in mushrooms using a novel protocol for gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and investigated their levels in different basidiomatal structures, different developmental stages, and on different nutritional substrates. Phenol concentration was greater in the pileus than the stipe, in mature compared with immature basidiomata, and in basidiomata occurring in woody mulch versus lawns. Variation in toxicity is suggested to be due in part to variation in phenol concentration, developmental stage and tissue type consumed, and substrate. Variation in human sensitivity to simple phenols may also play a role but was not formally investigated in this study.

In this study, the potential of focus-variation microscopic imaging was evaluated in a study of morphological patterns of the potential medicinal fungus Hericium coralloides (Basidiomycota). We created three-dimensional reconstructions and visualizations using the imaging technique on a fresh H. coralloides basidioma. The aim was to approximate the spore dispersal efficiency of this basidiomata type regarding the investment of tissue biomass and its reproductive output (production of basidiospores). Results were correlated with published data gained from magnetic resonance imaging and micro-computed tomography. It is demonstrated that focus-variation microscopic imaging results in a more distinct picture of the morphology of the edible and potentially medicinal H. coralloides basidiomata. However, a direct measurement of spore production was not possible. Spore production could only be estimated in combination with a mathematical model because the surface was not directly measurable due to the cellular heterogeneity. However, focus-variation microscopic imaging allows a better and faster estimation of spore production compared with the published methods. Furthermore, it was found that a scanning resolution of 5× is sufficient for determining the fungal surface precisely because at a higher resolution artifacts occur, resulting in adulteration of the image.

The selection of fast-growing and high-yield-producing strains is required to satisfy the market demand on fungal food supplements. To that aim, three strains deposited in our collection as G. lucidum and G. oregonense were screened for polysaccharide production and biomass yield. Ganoderma strains deposited as G. lucidum were identified as G. sessile and G. lingzhi by nuc rDNA internal transcribed spacer ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 (ITS) and translation elongation factor 1-α (TEF1-α) phylogenies. The identity of G. oregonense was confirmed by molecular phylogeny and biogeography. Additionally, mycelial antagonism confirmed species differentiation, and strains were further distinguished by morphology and protein profiles. Biomass and polysaccharide yields of G. sessile were clearly different from those of G. lingzhi and G. oregonense in both liquid culture and solid-state fermentation. The maximum polysaccharide yield (4.52 ± 0.83 g L-1) for G. sessile was obtained from submerged cultures at day 9. G. sessile also achieved the highest linear growth in lignocellulosic solid substrates. Consequently, basidiomata were successfully obtained by solid-state fermentation in polypropylene bags, whereas G. lingzhi and G. oregonense mushrooms were not produced in artificial solid substrates. G. sessile, a species frequently collected in America, showed to be a promising polysaccharide producer for the manufacture of dietary supplements.

Sequestrate fungi have enclosed hypogeous, subhypogeous, or epigeous basidiomes and have lost the ability to actively discharge their spores. They can be distinguished as gasteroid (basidiome fully enclosed with a loculated hymenophore) or secotioid (basidiome with some agaricoid or pileate-stipitate features, but the lamellae are misshapen and unexposed or mostly unexposed at maturity). There are only four reports of sequestrate taxa within the ectomycorrhizal family Inocybaceae, three from Australia and one from western North America. Recent field work in Nothofagaceae forests in the Chilean coastal range revealed novel sequestrate forms of Inocybe. We examined specimens using a combination of morphological and molecular data from nuc rDNA internal transcribed spacer region ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 (ITS) and portions of nuc 28S rDNA (28S) and the gene encoding the second largest subunit of RNA polymerase II (rpb2). Here, we describe four new sequestrate Inocybe species, I. ranunculiformis, I. anfractuosa, I. illariae, and I. nahuelbutensis. Results of our phylogenetic analysis resolved the four new species as distinct species-level clades with strong support, suggesting that these fungi have convergently evolved sequestrate forms independently. The species described here were all placed along with members of the "smooth-spored temperate austral clade," which includes almost exclusively Australasian and South American species of Inocybe.

We studied species of Leucoagaricus and Leucocoprinus collected in the Dominican Republic over the past 10 years using morphological and molecular methods and carefully compared our collections with previously described neotropical taxa. Twelve new species, eight in Leucoagaricus (La. bulbiger, La. caeruleovertens, La. margaritifer, La. pegleri, La. roseovertens, La. silvestris, La. stillatus, La. turgipes) and four in Leucocoprinus (Lc. antillarum, Lc. fuligineopunctatus, Lc. microlepis, Lc. scissus) are described. Additional records of previously described taxa are also discussed, including the first molecularly annotated occurrences of Lepiota guatopoensis, Lepiota mucrocystis, and La. rubroconfusus in their putative natural habitats and of Lc. cretaceus in the neotropics. Lepiota guatopoensis and Lepiota mucrocystis are transferred here to Leucoagaricus based on their phylogenetic placement and morphological characteristics. Color photographs of fresh basidiocarps and line drawings of microscopic characters are provided for all species.

Phlebopus roseus is described as new based on collections from southwest China. Phylogenetic analyses of nuclear rDNA internal transcribed spacer region ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 (ITS) and portions of nuclear 28S rDNA (28S), translation elongation factor 1-alpha (tef1), and the largest and second largest subunits of RNA polymerase II (rpb1, rpb2) support P. roseus as a novel species in the genus Phlebopus (Boletinellaceae, Boletales). The new species resembles P. portentosus but differs from it in that mature basidiomata have a bright rose-red-colored stipe and a radiate tubular hymenophore with nested pores. Despite extensive searching, P. roseus has only been found at four sites within a 24-hectare orchard dominated by Eriobotrya japonica, which is agriculturally important given its fruit production (loquats). Therefore, this species appears to be endemic and geographically restricted. The ecology of this bolete is also unique. In line with the trophic behavior of other species in the Boletinellaceae, our observations indicate that P. roseus forms a symbiotic association with the scale insect Coccus hesperidum, identified through sequence analysis of its mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) region, to form fungus-insect galls that develop on roots of E. japonica trees. Phlebopus roseus is an edible mushroom species and is collected from the type location by farmers and sold commercially in limited quantities at local markets alongside P. portentosus and other fungi.

is a species-rich ectomycorrhizal genus containing taxa that exhibit agaricoid or sequestrate basidiome morphologies. In New Zealand, one of the most recognizable and common Cortinarius species is the purple sequestrate fungus, C. porphyroideus. We used genome skimming of the almost 100-y-old type specimen from C. porphyroideus to obtain the nuc rDNA internal transcribed spacer region ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 (ITS barcode) and partial nuc rDNA 28S (28S) sequences. The phylogenetic position of C. porphyroideus was established, and we found that it represents a rarely collected species. Purple sequestrate Cortinarius comprise multiple cryptic species in several lineages. We describe four new species of Cortinarius with strong morphological similarity to C. porphyroideus: Cortinarius diaphorus, C. minorisporus, C. purpureocapitatus, and C. violaceocystidiatus. Based on molecular evidence, Thaxterogaster viola is recognized as Cortinarius violaceovolvatus var. viola. These species are associated with Nothofagus (southern beech) and have very similar morphology to C. porphyroideus but are all phylogenetically distinct based on molecular data.

We studied the South American species of Cortinarius section Thaumasti based on morphological and molecular data. Members of this group can easily be identified in the field because the basidiomata...

Ganoderma is a cosmopolitan genus that encompasses species with cultural, economic, and pathogenic importance. Despite the importance of this genus, knowledge pertaining to the species diversity of Ganoderma in South Africa is limited. This study aimed at elucidating the identity and phylogenetic placements of Ganoderma samples obtained during a survey of wood-rotting fungi in the Garden Route National Park (GRNP) of South Africa, supplemented with isolates obtained from other localities across the country. Identification was achieved by means of multilocus phylogenetic inference combined with morphological evaluation. In total, eight distinct species of Ganoderma were recovered from different hosts and localities across the country. Of these, Ganoderma cf. cupreum and Ganoderma cf. resinaceum represent possible new records for South Africa. Two novel species are described, namely, G. eickeri. and G. knysnamense. Ganoderma eickeri, sp. nov., is characterized by a triquetrous and broadly attached basidiome, a sulcate or zonate yellowish brown to brown pilear surface, and ovoid to ellipsoid basidiospores. Ganoderma knysnamense is distinguished by an applanate to ungulate, sometimes convex, dimidiate to broadly attached basidiome, a chocolate-brown pilear surface covered with a hard woody-like crust and ellipsoid, broadly ellipsoid to ovoid basidiospores. The discovery of two new Ganoderma species in this study raises the known Ganoderma species in South Africa to 13.

The genus Fuscoporia of the Hymenochaetaceae is characterized by resupinate to pileate basidiocarps, a dimitic hyphal system with fine crystal aggregates and encrusted generative hyphae in dissepiment edge and tube trama, the presence of hymenial setae, and hyaline, thin-walled, smooth basidiospores. Members of the F. contigua group are easy to distinguish from other species of Fuscoporia because of the moderately large pores, presence of mycelial setae, and large hymenial setae. Here, we explore phylogenetic relationships among 20 species of Fuscoporia based on examination of some 90 collections sampled worldwide. Seven new species are recognized in the F. contigua group-F. americana, F. centroamericana, F. costaricana, F. latispora, F. monticola, F. septiseta, and F. sinica-described from China, Costa Rica, Mexico, and the United States. Phylogenetic analyses inferred from DNA sequences of the nuc rDNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 = ITS), D1-D2 domains of nuc 28S rDNA (28S), and translation elongation factor EF-1 alpha (tef1) support the F. contigua group as one of two major clades within Fuscoporia comprising nine species worldwide.

Two new species, Fomitopsis mounceae and F. schrenkii (Polyporales, Basidiomycota) in the F. pinicola species complex in North America, are described and illustrated. Previous molecular phylogenetic analyses identified three well-delimited lineages that represent F. mounceae and F. ochracea from Canada, the Appalachian Mountains, and the northern United States and F. schrenkii from western and southwestern regions of the United States. Fomitopsis pinicola sensu stricto is restricted to Eurasia and does not occur in North America. Morphological descriptions of basidiocarps and cultures for F. mounceae, F. schrenkii, and F. ochracea are presented. The three species are readily differentiated by nuc rDNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 = ITS) sequence, geographic distribution, and basidiospore size. Polyporus ponderosus H. Schrenk is an earlier illegitimate synonym of F. schrenkii. Both F. mounceae and F. schrenkii have a heterothallic multiallelic incompatibility system.

Armillaria mexicana (Agaricales, Physalacriaceae) is described as a new species based on morphology, DNA sequence data, and phylogenetic analyses. It clearly differs from previously reported Armillaria species in North, Central, and South America. It is characterized by the absence of fibulae in the basidioma, abundant cheilocystidia, and ellipsoidal, hyaline basidiospores that are apparently smooth under light microscope, but slightly to moderately rugulose under scanning electron microscope. It is differentiated from other Armillaria species by macromorphological characters, including annulus structure, pileus and stipe coloration, and other structures. DNA sequence data (nuc rDNA internal transcribed spacers [ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 = ITS], 28S D-domain, 3′ end of 28S intergenic spacer 1, and translation elongation factor 1-α [TEF1]) show that A. mexicana sequences are quite distinct from sequences of analogous Armillaria species in GenBank. In addition, sequences of ITS of the A. mexicana ex-type culture reveal an ITS1 of 1299 bp and an ITS2 of 582 bp, the longest ITS regions reported thus far in fungi. Phylogenetic analysis based on TEF1 sequences place A. mexicana in a well-separated, monophyletic clade basal to the polyphyletic A. mellea complex.

Fomitiporella accommodates polypores producing annual to perennial basidiocarps with an indistinct subiculum (very thin to almost lacking), mostly a dimitic hyphal structure, lacking any kind of setae, with brownish, thick-walled basidiospores, and causing a white rot. Previously, only a few samples of Fomitiporella were studied on the basis of morphological and nuc 28S rDNA (28S)-based phylogenetic analyses. In this study, we made a comprehensive study on Fomitiporella on the basis of collections from Central America, USA, Europe, and China. The phylogenetic analysis, including 28 nuc 28S rDNA and 29 nuc rDNA ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 (internal transcribed spacer [ITS]) sequences newly generated, discovered 14 new lineages. Combined with morphological evidence, 4 new lineages are described and illustrated as new species, viz., Fomitiporella americana, F. micropora, F. sinica, and F. subinermis; 10 other new lineages, each with a single collection, are still treated as unidentified taxa; three new combinations, viz., Fomitiporella tenuissima, F. chinensis, and F. resupinata, are proposed. In addition, F. inermis is redescribed. A key to the 12 known species of Fomitiporella is provided.

Two new species of Phylloporus from Bangladesh forests dominated by Shorea robusta are described and illustrated, based on morphological and molecular phylogenetic evidence. Phylloporus attenuatus is characterized by its wine-red to brownish-red pilei, decurrent lamellae that stain blue, downwards tapering stipe, a trichodermium pileipellis, and ellipsoidal-ovoid to ellipsoidal basidiospores (7-8 × 4-5 µm). Phylloporus catenulatus is characterized by its small-sized basidiomata with reddish-brown pilei, narrowly decurrent with distant lamellae that stain blue, a subepithelium pileipellis, and ellipsoidal to ellipsoidal-ovoid basidiospores (8-9.5 × 4-5 µm). Both new species of Phylloporus are distinctive from any known taxa based on phylogenetic analyses of partial sequences of the nuc rDNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS; including ITS1-ITS2 but not 5.8S) region, partial sequence of nuclear ribosomal large subunit (28S) domains D1 and D2, and translation elongation factor 1-α (TEF1α). Both species are compared with phenotypically similar taxa and illustrated with line drawings and photographs. A key to the species of Phylloporus known from Bangladesh is provided.

Onnia includes white rotting polypores with annual basidiocarps, a duplex context, monomitic hyphal structure, hymenial setae, and hyaline, thin-walled, smooth basidiospores. Specimens of Onnia, originating mainly from East Asia, Europe, and North America, were studied using both morphology and phylogenetic analyses. Our concatenated data set was derived from 25 collections and included (i) 25 nuc rDNA internal transcribed spacer region sequences (ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 = ITS), 17 generated in this study; and (ii) 14 nuc rDNA 28S rDNA sequences, including the D1-D2 domains, 11 of them generated in this study. The resulting maximum likelihood and Bayesian phylogenies recovered all sampled collections of Onnia as a well-supported clade. In this clade, three previously accepted species, viz., Onnia leporina, O. tomentosa, and O. triquetra, received strong support, whereas three additional lineages with strong support represent the new species described in this paper, O. subtriquetra, O. microspora, and O. tibetica. Of the six Onnia species occurring on gymnosperms, O. tomentosa and O. leporina grow mainly on Picea and have circumboreal distribution in the Northern Hemisphere. In contrast, other species that mostly grow on Pinus are geographically restricted to limited regions, viz., O. triquetra in Europe, O. subtriquetra in North America, and O. microspora and O. tibetica in Asia.

Neomensularia (Hymenochaetaceae) is a new genus introduced for N. duplicata sp. nov. (generic type), N. crocitincta and N. kanehirae combs. nov., based on a combination of distinct morphological characters and phylogenetic analyses inferred from nuc rDNA partial 28S and ITS datasets. The new genus is characterized by annual, pileate, brown to fuscous basidiocarps, duplex context, dimitic hyphal structure, ventricose, and hooked hymenial setae, golden yellow, thick-walled, smooth basidiospores that are negative in both Melzer's reagent and Cotton Blue and a growth habit in tropical forests. Neomensularia duplicata closely resembles Mensularia radiata by hooked hymenial setae, but M. radiata has a homogenous context, larger pores (5-7 per mm), monomitic hyphal structure, hyphoid setae, larger cyanophilic basidiospores and occurs in temperate forests. Central American specimens labeled as Inonotus crocitinctus and Asian specimens identified as Fulvifomes kanehirae were re-examined. The duplex context, hooked hymenial setae and colored basidiospores are similar to N. duplicata Phylogenetic inferences based on 28S and ITS sequence data confirm their affinities with N. duplicata and result in the proposal of new combinations, Neomensularia crocitincta and N. kanehirae.

A Dacryopinax species that was cultured in Costa Rica and fruited in the laboratory provided DNA for the first sequenced genome for the Dacrymycetes. Here we characterize the isolate morphologically and cytologically and name it D. primogenitus Molecular sequences from the nuclear large subunit gene and internal transcribed spacer indicated that it is closely related to the South American D. indacocheae with which it agrees structurally. Both species form conidia on the basidiocarp, and D primogenitus also forms them on the mycelium. Unlike previous reports for the Dacrymycetales postmeiotic nuclear division results in uninucleate basidiospores and six residual nuclei in the basidium after basidiospore discharge. Ultrastructural analysis shows the characteristic septal-pore apparatus for the class and endogenous origin of the epibasidia/sterigmata, which may be a common occurrence in Dacrymycetes and the early diverging orders of its sister class, the Agaricomycetes.

Three new and one previously described species of Physalacria (Physalacriaceae, Agaricales) are reported from China. Specimens of two additional species described from Malaysia and North America were studied for comparison. Placements of these species were corroborated based on morphological observations and molecular evidence from partial sequences of the nuc rDNA internal transcribed spacer regions (ITS) and the 28S D1-D3 region, and genes for translation elongation factor 1-α (tef1α) and the second largest subunit of RNA polymerase II (rpb2). These new species of Physalacria distributed in subtropical China were found on rotten wood of broadleaf trees or bamboo and possess stipitate-capitate basidiomata with four-spored basidia, clamp connections and smooth, inamyloid basidiospores. To facilitate studies of the genus in Asia, a key is provided for all Physalacria species reported from this region.

The ectomycorrhizal milkcap genus Lactifluus (Russulaceae) is commonly found in tropical and subtropical forests of Southeast Asia. During several sampling expeditions in Thailand, multiple collections of Lactifluus (Lf.) species with pleurotoid or small agaricoid basidiocarps were found. A molecular study was combined with a morphological study, in which the collections were compared with herbarium material. The molecular study indicated that four Thai collections belonged to undescribed species within Lactifluus section Gerardii, as was also the case for herbarium collections of a pleurotoid species from Nepal. One other collection from Thailand appeared closely related to Lf. uyedae, known only from Japan. Five species are described as new in the genus: Lf. auriculiformis, Lf. gerardiellus, Lf. bhandaryi, Lf. pulchrellus, and Lf. raspei.

Fistulinella is a small genus of boletoid fungi in the subfamily Austroboletoideae in the order Boletales. In this paper, F. ruschii from the Atlantic Forest is proposed as new to science and F. campinaranae var. scrobiculata, known from the Brazilian Amazon forest, is recorded for the first time in the Atlantic Forest. Macro- and microscopic descriptions, molecular data (nuc rDNA ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 and nuc 28S rDNA), photographs of the basidiomata, and scanning electron microscopy images of basidiospores are provided for both species. Based on sampling of six taxa, New World Fistulinella is found to be a strongly supported monophyletic group, but the genus at large is nonmonophyletic.

Geographic, morphological, and internal transcribed spacer (ITS)-based molecular review of collections identified as Polyozellus multiplex revealed that it is a complex of five phylogenetic species. Average spore size-either less or more than 7 × 6 µm-splits the complex into a small-spored group of two (P. multiplex and P. atrolazulinus) and a large-spored group of three (P. mariae, P. marymargaretae, and P. purpureoniger). Basidiocarps of the small-spored species are somewhat smaller than the large-spored ones, are various shades of blue, dark all the way to black, with brownish tomentum only in early growth, have dark context, and have pilei that tend to flare out at the edge. The large-spored species produce somewhat larger sporocarps, have light or lighter context than the pileipelis, and usually retain some brown on the mature pileipellis, the edge of which tends to curl like a cabbage leaf. All will darken or blacken with age. The species of the P. multiplex complex are distributed in the northern coniferous region, with the exception of Europe. One species (P. atrolazulinus) is known from three regions, eastern Asia, western North America, and northeastern North America. Two species are known from two regions: P. purpureoniger in eastern Asia and northwestern North America and P. multiplex in eastern Asia and eastern North America. Two species have been documented in one region only: P. mariae in northeastern North America and P. marymargaretae in western North America. A combination of location, macromorphology, and spore size will usually differentiate the species of the complex.

Three new species of Phylloporia from tropical China are described in this study: P. manglietiae, P. pendula, and P. pseudopectinata. Phylloporia manglietiae is characterized by triquetrous to ungulate basidiomata, with 6-8 pores/mm, a monomitic to dimitic hyphal system, and broadly ellipsoidal basidiospores, 3-3.5 × 2-2.5 μm. Phylloporia pendula has small, imbricate, and pendent basidiomata, with 7-9 pores/mm, a dimitic hyphal system, and broadly ellipsoidal basidiospores, 3.5-4 × 2.5-3 μm. Phylloporia pseudopectinata differs from other species of Phylloporia by its applanate basidiomata, with 8-9 pores/mm, a dimitic hyphal system, and subglobose basidiospores, 3-3.5 × 2-3 μm. Phylogenetic analyses, based on sequences from the D1-D2 domains of the 28S gene and the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region (ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 = ITS) of the nuc rDNA, support the classification of the three new species in Phylloporia.

A new Asian species of Crepidotus (Basidiomycota, Agaricales), C. asiaticus, is presented based on morphological and nuc rDNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 = ITS) and large subunit (28S) sequence data. This new species, found in India and Thailand, is characterized by the centrally stipitate medium-sized basidiomata, orange to reddish brown pileus, white to brownish orange lamellae, and white stipe. Based on morphology, C. asiaticus is similar to the neotropical C. thermophilus. However, the microscopic characters, especially the size and shape of the basidiospores, can be used to distinguish these two taxa, as well as their geographic distributions. Further, the phylogenetic position of C. asiaticus is unique based on ITS and 28S nuc rDNA sequences. Melanomphalia argipoda, described by Singer from Ecuador, is also a stipitate Crepidotus based on an ITS sequence of the type specimen, so the new combination is proposed here. Phylogenetically, the three species form a monophyletic group with the Asiatic C. asiaticus forming the sister lineage to the neotropical C. argipodus and C. thermophilus.

Four species are added to Phylloporia. Three species, originating from the western edge of the Guineo-Congolian rainforest in Gabon (central Africa), are described as new. Phylloporia afrospathulata sp. nov. forms seasonal, stipitate, solitary basidiomata emerging from soil, more likely connected to buried roots, and has broadly ellipsoid basidiospores. Phylloporia inonotoides sp. nov. forms seasonal sessile, soft basidiomata, solitary at the base of small-stemmed trees including Crotonogyne manniana (Euphorbiaceae) and Garcinia cf. smeathmannii (Clusiaceae). It has a homogeneous context, large pores (2-3 mm), and oblong-ellipsoid to suballantoid basidiospores. Phylloporia fulva sp. nov. forms sessile, conchate, mostly pendant, gregarious basidiomata emerging from the trunk of an unidentified small-stemmed tree and has small, subglobose basidiospores. This species is compared to Polyporus pullus and Phylloporia pulla comb. nov. and proposed based on the study of the type specimen. Phylogenetic inferences using partial nuc 28S DNA sequence data (region including the D1/D2/D3 domains) and the most exhaustive dataset available to date resolved these new morphospecies as three distinct terminal lineages. No sequence data of P. pulla currently is available. The 28S-based phylogenic inferences poorly resolved the interspecific relationships within the Phylloporia clade.

The potential of 3-D nondestructive imaging techniques such as micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) was evaluated to study morphological patterns of the potential medicinal fungus Hericium coralloides (Basidiomycota). Micro-CT results were correlated with histological information gained from scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and light microscopy (LM). It is demonstrated that the combination of these imaging methods results in a more distinct picture of the morphology of the edible and potentially medicinal Hericium coralloides basidiomata. In addition we have created 3-D reconstructions and visualizations based on micro-CT imagery from a randomly selected part of the upper region of a fresh H. coralloides basidioma: Analyses for the first time allowed an approximation of the evolutionary effectiveness of this bizarrely formed basidioma type in terms of the investment of tissue biomass and its reproductive output (production of basidiospores).

Three new species of Coltricia from southern China are described on the basis of morphological characters and molecular analyses. Phylogenetic analyses based on nuc rDNA ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 and partial 28S rDNA, and partial sequences of genes for RNA polymerase II subunits 1 and 2 confirmed the generic placement of the three new species. Coltricia lateralis is characterized by small, laterally stipitate basidiocarps, obtuse pileus margin, cinnamon-buff to honey yellow pore surface, and broadly ellipsoid basidiospores that measure 7–8 × 5–6 µm. Coltricia rigida is characterized by large, woody-hard fan-shaped basidiocarps, small pores (7–8 per mm), presence of septate sclerified hyphae, and subglobose to globose basidiospores that measure 6–7 × 5–6.5 μm. Coltricia wenshanensis is characterized by centrally stipitate basidiocarps, a distinctly concentrically zonate and sulcate pileal surface, large pores (0.5–2 per mm), and broadly ellipsoid to subglobose basidiospores that measure 7.5–8 × 6–7 µm.

Two Laetiporus species, L. ailaoshanensis and L. zonatus spp. nov., are described from southwestern China based on morphological and molecular characters. Laetiporus ailaoshanensis is characterized by orange-yellow to reddish orange pileal surface and cream to buff pores when fresh, azonate to faintly zonate pileus, ovoid to ellipsoid basidiospores (5.0-6.2 × 4.0-5.0 μm), and it has been observed only on Lithocarpus. Laetiporus zonatus is characterized by white to cream pileal surface with buff to clay-buff base when fresh, concentrically zonate basidiocarps, ellipsoid to pyriform or drop-shaped basidiospores (5.8-7.2 × 4.3-5.5 μm), and it has been found only on Quercus. The phylogenetic relationships of all recognized Laetiporus species were inferred from a combined dataset of ITS and nLSU-rDNA sequences, and L. ailaoshanensis and L. zonatus represent two new lineages in this group.

The butter boletes (Boletus s.l. sect. Appendiculati) are an economically important group of ectomycorrhizal fungi whose basidiocarps have a yellow tube layer that often bruises blue, yellow reticulate stipe, mild flavor and firm yellow-tinged flesh that may or may not turn blue when exposed. Morphological characters and molecular data (ITS and LSU) place this group in a separate phylogenetic clade from Boletus sensu stricto. Here we establish a new genus, Butyriboletus, to accommodate 14 species of butter boletes that range from Asia to Europe, north Africa and North America. We recombine eight previously described butter bolete species and we describe six new species: four from western USA (Bu. persolidus, Bu. primiregius, Bu. autumnigius, Bu. querciregius) and two from Yunnan, China (Bu. yicibus, Bu. sanicibus).

The wood-decay fungi Fomes fasciatus and F. fomentarius share many morphological characters that historically have made species delimitation challenging. We examined morphological, molecular and physiological characters of basidiomata and pure cultures of F. fasciatus and F. fomentarius sampled from multiple plant hosts and geographic regions in the United States to determine whether they support separation of the two species. We find that mean basidiospore size is significantly larger in F. fomentarius and represents the most informative morphological character for delineating the species. Basidiomata and pore-surface shape provided additional resolution of the species, but these characters often overlap and are more variable than basidiospore size. Phylogenetic analyses of ITS and RPB2 sequences suggest that F. fasciatus and F. fomentarius represent distinct evolutionary lineages. The two species share less than 88% maximum identity for the ITS region. Limited intraspecific sequence variation at each locus also was observed. In vitro experiments of hyphal-growth response to a wide range of temperatures support differences in physiology between the two species.

We analyzed the DNA sequences of four gene regions, 28S and 18S rDNA, the ITS region and rpb2, to obtain a high resolution phylogenetic tree of Dacrymycetes. In addition, we comparatively studied micro- and macromorphological characteristics of representative species. The traditional generic classification based on morphological characteristics was not reflected by our molecular phylogenies. Ancestral state reconstructions indicated that the morphology of basidia and clamp connections are evolutionarily stable. In contrast, basidiocarps and basidiospore septation patterns appear variable. Dacrymyces unisporus shares the dolipores with non-perforate parenthesomes typical of other dacrymycetous taxa but is a unique species having predominantly non-bifurcate basidia and subglobose to ovoid basidiospores with transverse and longitudinal septa. In molecular phylogenies this species is a member of Dacrymycetes but always occupies a sister position in relation to the rest of the Dacrymycetes. Based on our results we propose a new genus, Unilacryma, for D. unisporus. For proper accommodation of this taxon, we introduce the family Unilacrymaceae and the order Unilacrymales.

Two new species of Fomitiporia growing on Hippophae trees, F. norbulingka and F. subhippophaeicola, are described from southwest China based on morphological characters and phylogenetic analysis. Fomitiporia norbulingka is characterized by pileate basidiomata, mostly angular pores (6-9 per mm), slightly thick-walled generative hyphae, subglobose to globose basidiospores (6.5-7 × 5.5-7 μm), and absence of cystidioles. Fomitiporia subhippophaeicola is diagnostic by effused-reflexed to pileate basidiomata, angular pores (8-10 per mm), thick-walled generative hyphae, subglobose to obovoid basidiospores (6-8 × 5.5-7 μm), and presence of ventricose to fusoid cystidioles. Phylogenetic analysis inferred from combined sequences including the nuc rDNA ITS1-5.8-ITS2 region, 28S rDNA D1-D2 domains, partial sequences of translation elongation factor 1-α, and RNA polymerase II second largest subunits genes indicated that F. norbulingka and F. subhippophaeicola represent two new lineages which group together with F. hippophaeicola.

Phlebopus portentosus is a popular wild edible ectomycorrhizal fungus in northern Thailand. In general ectomycorrhizal fungi produce basidiomes when associated with a host plant. In this paper mycelium growth and basidiome production of P. portentosus were examined in pure culture both in vitro and in pot-culture experiments. Five mycelial strains of P. portentosus were isolated from basidiomes and used in the experiments. The mycelia grew fastest on sorghum grains supplemented with fungal-host solution. The mycelia produced sclerotia-like structures after 3 wk incubation in darkness at 30 C. All strains of P. portentosus had the ability to form primordia. The primordia were formed under lowered temperature, high humidity and a 12 h photo-period. They developed to mature basidiomes after 8-12 d in in vitro. In the pot-culture primordia were found after 28-35 d incubation in the greenhouse and mature basidiomes released basidiospores within 6-8 d. Basidiospores were germinated on fungal-host medium and formed mycelial colonies. This fungus showed an ability to produce basidiomes even 2 y after the original isolation from tissues. This research provides valuable information concerning the techniques and protocols for the large scale commercial production of P. portentosus basidiomes in the absence of a host plant.

Two new species of Hypocrea are added here to the European funga. Hypocrea britdaniae, a fungus with unknown anamorph and large, conspicuous stromata resembling basidiomata of a corticiaceous fungus, is a sister species to the Longibrachiatum clade, while H. foliicola, a leaf-dwelling species that forms pulvinate stromata, is recognized as an additional member of the pachybasium core group. Hypocrea foliicola sporulates in culture in a reduced verticillium-like manner, while it produces a white, typical pachybasium-like anamorph in nature. Ecologically H. foliicola is remarkable in inhabiting leaves, a substrate rarely recorded for Hypocrea. All relevant morphological teleomorphic and anamorphic traits are given. The phylogenetic placement of the new species within Hypocrea/Trichoderma was determined with combined analyses of rpb2 and tef1 exon sequences.

Three new species of Clavulina (Canthar- ellales, Basidiomycota) are described from rainforests dominated by ectomycorrhizal trees of the legumi- nous genus Dicymbe (Fabaceae subfam. Caesalpinioi- deae) from the central Guiana Shield. Species of Clavulina typically form branched, coralloid basidio- mata with amphigenous hymenia. However, the three species described here form resupinate or effuso- coralloid basidiomata, macromorphological forms previously unknown in Clavulina. Macromorphologi- cal, micromorphological, habitat and DNA sequence data are provided for each new species. Micromor- phological features and DNA sequence data from the second largest subunit of DNA-dependant RNA polymerase II (rpb2) and internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and large subunit (28S) of the ribosomal repeat justify placement of these new species in Clavulina. Comparisons with described Clavulina species and other resupinate taxa within the Cantharellales are provided.

Eight peptide toxins were isolated and purified from basidiocarps of Amanita exitialis with high performance liquid chromatography and were subjected to ultraviolet, nuclear magnetic resonance and mass spectrometry. We identified seven peptide toxins, α-amanitin, β-amanitin, amaninamide, phallacin, phallacidin, phallisacin and desoxoviroidin. The molecular weight (729.5 Da) of the eighth compound did not match that of any reported Amanita toxins and, although the UV absorption spectrum indicated it to be a phallotoxin, further studies are required to identify this component. This is the first report of amaninamide, phallacin, phallisacin and desoxoviroidin in this lethal mushroom species.

Leucoagaricus decipiens and La. erythrophaeus, are described as new from Sardinia, Italy, and California, USA, respectively. These sister species show distinct reddening when touched on all parts of the basidiocarps and darken on drying. Their collariate lamellae, broadly cylindrical to utriform cheilocystidia and trichodermal pileus covering distinguish them morphologically from other species in sect. Piloselli, while nrITS and EF1-alpha sequences distinguish them from each other. Leucoagaricus erythrophaeus has been known under the name Lepiota roseifolia, but the type collection of this species does not fit the interpretation.

A new genus, Neoaleurodiscus, is proposed as a segregate from Aleurodiscus (Basidiomycota), and the new species, Neoaleurodiscus fujii, is described. It was collected at the timberline of Mount Fuji, Japan. Specimens were found on trunks of Rhododendron sp. Morphological study and phylogenetic analysis based on sequence data derived from LSU nrDNA indicated that Neoaleurodiscus is separate from other segregate genera from Aleurodiscus s.l. Neoaleurodiscus is characterized by having a disciform basidiocarp; microscopically it has moniliform gloeocystidia, absence of acanthophyses, nodose-septate hyphae, hyphidia, and basidiospores, which are amyloid, smooth and +/- thick-walled. Among genera studied Acanthobasidium and Aleurodiscus (s.s.) are most closely related to Neoaleurodiscus, but these genera have warted or spiny basidiospores. Two new combinations, Acanthobasidium penicillatum and Neoaleurodiscus monilifer, are proposed.

Hydnangium echinulatum, described originally from a single specimen collected in Malaysia, has been recollected, and based on morphological and molecular characters is recognized as representing a new gasteroid genus of boletes with affinities to the Boletineae, herein named Durianella. Diagnostic features include an epigeous, ovoid, pyramidal-warted, durian fruit-like basidiome with gelatinized glebal locules and a columella that turns indigo blue upon exposure, and subglobose basidiospores with long, curved, thin-walled and collapsible spines. A redescription, phylogenetic analysis and comparison with allied taxa are presented.

Gloeodontia xerophila sp. nov. is described and illustrated from material collected on dead xerophyte debris in the Canary Islands. This species is characterized by the odontioid hymenophore with short aculei, up to 2 mm long, dimitic hyphal system and amyloid, subglobose and verrucose spores, 4-5 x 3-4 microm. The new taxon is compared with other species in the genus and a key to the species of Gloeodontia is provided.

A new species, Gloiocephala cerkezii, is described from Croatia. It is characterized by a pale brown to rusty brown pileus, an elongated central to slightly eccentric stipe, vein-like lamellae, large and elongate spores, subcapitate to capitate cystidia, a gelatinized trama, and the absence of hairs on the pileus and stipe. The description is accompanied by black and white photograph of basidiocarps and line drawings of microscopic elements. G. cerkezii is compared to closely related species, and a dichotomous key to European species of the genus Gloiocephala is provided. A new combination Gloiocephala pseudocaricis is made.

Evidence derived from molecular studies in recent years has revealed that corticioid fungal genera are present in all major clades of Homobasidiomycetes. Brunneocorticium pyriforme, a corticioid fungus is proposed as a new species and placed in a new genus belonging to the euagarics clade. This fungus has been collected in subtropical-tropical Taiwan and southern Yunnan Province, China. Basidiocarps often occur on bark of living Murraya spp. (Rutaceae). Basidiocarps of B. pyriforme are resupinate with a smooth hymenial surface, a dimitic hyphal system, with nodose-septate generative hyphae and abundant yellowish brown skeletal hyphae, and leptocystidia. It has 2-sterigmate basidia and pear-shaped basidiospores. Phylogenetic analysis based on sequence data derived from LSU rDNA included Brunneocorticium in the euagarics clade of Homobasidiomycetes, allied to the agaricoid genera Marasmiellus, Campanella, etc. The molecular analysis indicated that the Brunneocorticium was independent from other corticioid genera with similar morphological features.

Five new species of Inocybe, I. iringolkavensis, I. keralensis, I. kuruvensis, I. muthangensis and I. wayanadensis, are described from Kerala state, India, based on morphological and molecular data. All are associated with trees belonging to Dipterocarpaceae. Inocybe iringolkavensis is characterized by nodulose to somewhat stellate basidiospores, 1-4-spored basidia, and caulocystidia restricted to the stipe apex. Inocybe keralensis has a yellowish brown pileus, lamellae with whitish, serrate edges, smooth, ellipsoidal basidiospores and a duplex pileipellis with the superficial hyphae devoid of encrustations and encrusted hyphae beneath. The diagnostic features of I. kuruvensis include a dark brown pileus, stipe with a whitish base and grayish brown, floccose-fibrillose surface, nodulose basidiospores with saddle-shaped projections and faintly encrusted paracystidia with refractive contents. Violet basidiomata with a rimose, hygrophanous pileus, densely pruinose stipe with a marginate-bulbous base, and nodulose basidiospores are the major features of I. muthangensis. Inocybe wayanadensis is characterized by small, whitish basidiomata, a viscid pileus with a rimulose surface, a densely pruinose and fibrillose stipe with a marginate-bulbous base, nodulose basidiospores, thick-walled pleuro- cheilo- and caulocystidia and an ixotrichoderm-type pileipellis. The phylogenetic relationships of these new species are inferred from an analysis of nuc rDNA sequences of the internal transcribed spacers (ITS1-5.8S-ITS2) and the 28S gene. Except I. keralensis, which belongs to the Pseudosperma clade, all other species belong to the Inocybe clade. This study represents the second report of an Inocybe species (I. muthangensis) that combines violet basidiomata with nodulose basidiospores.

Patterns of fungal spore dispersal affect gene flow, population structure and fungal community structure. Many Basidiomycota produce resupinate (crust-like) basidiocarps buried in the soil. Although spores are actively discharged, they often do not appear to be well positioned for aerial dispersal. We investigated the potential spore dispersal mechanisms of one exemplar of this growth form, Tomentella sublilacina. It is a widespread ectomycorrhizal fungus that sporulates in the soil organic horizon, can establish from the spore bank shortly after disturbance, but also can be a dominant species in mature forest stands. We investigated whether its spores could be dispersed via spore-based food webs. We examined external surfaces, gut contents and feces from arthropod fungivores (mites, springtails, millipedes, beetles, fly larvae) and arthropod and vertebrate predators (centipedes, salamanders) from on and around T. sublilacina sporocarps. Spore densities were high in the guts of many individuals from all fungivore groups. Centipede gut contents, centipede feces and salamander feces contained undigested invertebrate exoskeletons and many apparently intact spores. DAPI staining of spores from feces of fungivores indicated that 7-73% of spores contained intact nuclei, whereas spores from predators had lower percentages of intact nuclei. The spiny spores often were lodged on invertebrate exoskeletons. To test the viability of spores that had passed through invertebrate guts we used fecal droppings of the millipede Harpaphe haydeniana to successfully inoculate seedlings of Pinus muricata (Bishop pine). These results indicate the potential for T. sublilacina spore dispersal via invertebrates and their predators in soil food webs and might help to explain the widespread distribution of this species. It is likely that this is a general mechanism of dispersal for fungi producing resupinate sporocarps, indicating a need to develop a fuller understanding of the linkages of soil food webs and spore dispersal.

Vegetative mycelial cells of Armillaria are expected to have diploid nuclei. Cells from a single mycelium therefore would not be expected to differ from one another for ecologically relevant quantita- tive traits. We isolated two sets of basidiome cell lines (from spores and stipe cells) and one set of vegetative cell lines (from an attached rhizomorph) from a sin- gle contiguous Armillaria gallica mycelium. We iso- lated a second set of vegetative cell lines from the soil 20 cm from the above basidiome-rhizomorph com- plex. In all four sets of cell lines in situ DAPI-DNA measurements showed cells are haploid and quanti- tative-trait analyses of cell lines grown at different wa- ter potentials revealed high levels of among-cell-line genetic variation for both growth and phenotypic plasticity. Haploidy and the existence of ecologically relevant genetic variation within vegetative individu- als are unexpected and mean that a process similar to evolutionary adaptation could take place within the soma of a genetic individual. We believe this is a key to understanding how large A. gallica mycelia survive exposure to variation in ecological conditions during lives that potentially span several tree (host) generations.

Macro- and micromorphological charac- ters of specimens of the genus Pleurotus (Fr.) P. Kumm. in Argentina obtained in the field and from different national herbaria were analyzed. Cultivation techniques were used to obtain basidiomata, allowing for a macro- and micromorphological study of fresh developing fruit bodies. We concluded that in Argen- tina there are, so far, six species, namely P. albidus, P. cystidiosus, P. ostreatus, P. pulmonarius, P. rickii and P. djamor, the latter with three varieties: var. djamor, var. cyathiformis and var. roseus.

Two new species of Clavulina are de- scribed from rainforests dominated by ectomycorrhi- zal Dicymbe spp. (Caesalpiniaceae) in the Pakaraima Mountains of Guyana. Clavulina nigricans, sp. nov. is unique for Clavulina in having 4-6 spores per basid- ium. Clavulina craterelloides, sp. nov. has an infundib- uliform basidiome, previously unknown in the oth- erwise coralloid genus Clavulina. Macromorpholog- ical, micromorphological and habitat data are provid- ed for each taxon, as well as justification for their placement in Clavulina based on morphological and molecular features.