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Purpose Entrepreneurial mentoring is widely regarded as an effective way to train novice entrepreneurs all over the world. However, the effectiveness of this approach and the determinants are not well understood under country-specific conditions. The purpose of this paper is to build a conceptual framework and use empirical analysis to explore the mentoring effect and its determinants, especially in the Chinese context. Design/methodology/approach The paper uses data from 172 young entrepreneurs which had been supported by Youth Business China, Mianyang Office since 2008. The factor analysis and structural equation model have been applied to analyze the data to investigate the quantitative relationship and path of the mentoring effect of entrepreneurship with mentor’s factors, young entrepreneurs (mentees’s factors) and their interrelationship. Findings The assessment scores of the entrepreneurship mentoring effect both in experience level and effectiveness level are relatively high, in the satisfactory range. The entrepreneurship mentoring effect, measured by the experience and the performance level, is determined by the coupling interaction of the mentor, the mentee and their interactive relationship. Among them, the mentor’s characteristic, the most important being his/her intention, has the biggest effect on the mentoring effect, significantly bigger than the mentor’s quality and skill. However, the mentor’s intention is not strong as expected. The interactive relationship between the mentor and the mentee also has a significant positive effect on entrepreneurial mentoring effect. The study also discovered the mentee factors have comparatively smaller effect on both the interactive relationship and the mentoring effect. Furthermore, it is found that the absorptive capability and learning intention of the young entrepreneur are relatively weak. Research limitations/implications The construction of the index system of this research reflects the overall characteristics of the research objects and their static relationships. Therefore, the dynamic change of the mentoring relationship in different phases of the mentorship has not been taken into account. Also, self-serving bias may exist as this research measures the mentoring effect by the feedback on the mentor’s perception, using surveys completed by the mentees to measure both the mentee’s traits and the mentor’s qualities. Practical implications This study provides guidance on how entrepreneurship could be promoted and on how educational institutions in China can make the mentoring process a positive and effective system in order to enhance the mentoring effect. Social implications The empirical conclusions of the present study can be applied to other business incubator, entrepreneurship education institutions and for the improvement and promotion of entrepreneurial mentoring system in China. Originality/value This paper probes into the mentoring system in the context of China from a new perspective and proposes an original conceptual model to study the entrepreneurship mentoring effect and its determinant.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to describe how discovery and creation opportunities transition from one to the other and thereby clarify the relationship between opportunity types. This theoretical work will offer insight for studying opportunities and clarify the different practical implications of different opportunity types. Design/methodology/approach – To further the understanding of opportunity types, the paper employs Dubin’s (1978) theory building methodology focussing specifically on the concepts of system states. Approaching opportunity types as system states clarifies the relationship between discovery and creation opportunities. Findings – This research argues that opportunities transition from creation opportunities to discovery opportunities. Furthermore, understanding the opportunity state can clarify the practical implications for entrepreneurs. In particular, entrepreneurs in discovery states employ different processes regarding human resources, strategy, financing, planning, leadership, and potential competitive advantage than entrepreneurs pursuing creation states. Originality/value – This paper offers value to researchers by clarifying the differences between opportunity types. To date, there has been little to no investigation into how opportunity types change from one type to another. This research offers to clarify the debate about the existence of different opportunity types and move the discussion forward theoretically. Additionally, this manuscript offers practical insights for entrepreneurs pursuing different types of opportunities.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to present a model for the development of effective leadership teaching and learning. The model takes central factors into account, which have previously been identified as obstacles to the successful development of leadership qualifications. The paper presents the theoretical background for the model and makes suggestions for its implementation in a teaching and learning programme. The model integrates overall elements related to human biology and transfer of learning into a holistic learning process, which more specifically emphasizes the transformational leadership elements of envisioning, translating, communicating and sustaining credibility during change. Design/methodology/approach – The teaching and learning programme is based on a comprehensive leadership learning model, which integrates different levels of knowledge, learning processes and learning formats. Findings – In the area of leadership development, the paper presents its teaching and learning programme as a way for managers to obtain leadership meta-skills, which can be applied and individually adapted to the changing demands and conditions of modern work life. Originality/value – The paper provides a valuable step towards increasing leadership performance through efficient teaching and learning.

Purpose – First, the purpose of this paper is to describe and analyze the role of the components in the creation of a partnering way of working; second, to illustrate how the achievement of such collaborative state is dependent on a hierarchy of constructs. Design/methodology/approach – The paper builds on a large case study of a successful Swedish partnering project. The case, studied through extensive interviews and observations, was process-oriented and analyzed using a theoretically driven thematic analysis. Findings – It is shown that components exist on different levels and constitute different types of building blocks in striving toward a “true” collaborative climate. It is also shown that as the project progressed, even the non-partnering sub-projects were infused with a collaborative way of working. To this end it is suggested that there might be a certain stickiness related to this way of working. As trust, openness, and mutual understanding are constructs on an interpersonal level, it is on the interpersonal level partnering endeavors are won or lost. Research limitations/implications – The paper provides a new conceptualization of the partnering components and also an understanding of how the components contribute to the creation of a collaborative climate. Because the research was built on a case study, one has the limitations common with that approach. Practical implications – The importance of understanding that individual expectations are the basis for the action and learning that interact in a constant feedback loop, as the partnering pyramid is climbed. Originality/value – This understanding should be of interest for both practitioners and academics working with partnering.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to propose a framework that uses complexity as a means of better understanding the role that case studies can play in the classroom and in building bridges between research and practice. Design/methodology/approach – The paper synthesizes complexity theory and the practical classroom and case writing experiences of the author into a framework. Findings – A narrow view of the impact of case studies severely limits their widespread adoption. Rather than treating a case study as a document of very limited value to an academic career, the author needs to recognize their role in building relationships between research and practice. Through these relationships, opportunities for students and two-way flows of knowledge between academia and practice can be achieved. Research limitations/implications – The framework developed assumes that domain of study is complex – involving many interacting elements taking place in a context where an objectively “right” or “best” answer is unlikely to be realized. It is less clear that it is applicable to situations where optimal procedures are available and can be taught or learned. Practical implications – A key implication of the framework is that separating the use of case studies in the classroom (i.e. case facilitation) from the development of case studies in the field (i.e. case writing) can greatly diminish their value. Social implications – The proposed framework argues for greater interaction between the academic and practitioner communities. Originality/value – The paper offers a comprehensive perspective on cases that is rarely expressed. It should be of particular value to faculty and administrators seeking to justify the development and use of case studies.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine and explain why most small firms remain small. A new conceptual framework – the condition of smallness – is proposed. Design/methodology/approach – A critical examination of the literature about the nature of being a small firm is first conducted. Employing an inductive analysis of responses from a survey of 2,521 small business owners about employment regulation, the nature and effects of smallness is examined. Findings – It was found that owners' choice making combines with perceptions about their resources to produce a condition of smallness. The condition of smallness is conceptualised as the circularity perceptions, attitudes and consequent practices that reflect lack of knowledge, time and capability. It is argued that this condition of smallness inhibits growth to create a wicked problem that explains why most small firms don't grow. Research limitations/implications – This work is largely conceptual, albeit the argument is grounded in, and illustrated by, empirical data. The findings may not be generalisable beyond this paper's data sets, but may be generalisable conceptually. Originality/value – The focus of much scholarly work has been on growth firms. Yet the typical small firm is excluded so that the issues of smallness are often overlooked. This paper, therefore contributes to understanding why small firms don't grow.

[EN] Purpose – Scholars in social sciences tend to use the term of path dependence without explaining exactly what they mean by it. Path dependence is a useful approach to understand the success or otherwise of the implementation of management innovation. The aim of this paper is to identify under which conditions it makes sense to talk about path dependence, and the relevance of using path dependence to the analysis of management innovation. Design/methodology/approach – The path dependence literature in different contexts and knowledge areas within social science is reviewed using a narrative approach. Findings – The concept of path dependence can be used to study management innovation, particularly when analyzing the introduction of new management practices. The authors argue that the order in which management practices are introduced has a profound effect on the outcomes for the organization. When the appropriate practices are introduced first, these create enhanced capabilities for the implementation of subsequent practices. If inappropriate practices are rolled out, they may severely impede management innovation and thus evolution and change of the firm. Research limitations/implications – This work highlights the need to conduct further research to understand the interaction between existing practices and the new ones. This study can be extended with an empirical work to corroborate the results presented here. Originality/value – By reviewing the different definitions of path dependence that exist in the literature, this paper will stimulate a debate on the necessary and sufficient conditions of path dependence and encourage a greater level of clarity in the management innovation area., The work described in this paper has been supported by the project “CORSARI MAGIC DPI2010-18243” by the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación del Gobierno de España within the Program de “Proyectos de Investigación Fundamental No Orientada”.

PurposeThe Spanish hospitality industry is facing environmental challenges which require organisations and individuals to learn new skills and practices and create new environmental knowledge. The aim of this paper is to analyse the relationships between an unlearning context and environmental knowledge.Design/methodology/approachThis paper analyses the relationships between an unlearning context and environmental knowledge and tries to identify whether environmental knowledge impacts on business outcomes through an empirical study of 127 Spanish hospitality companies.FindingsThe results support the hypothesis that, in order to create environmental knowledge and hence foster the application of new environmental knowledge, companies need to provide and support an unlearning context.Research limitations/implicationsIt is important that managers provide an appropriate unlearning context to support the openness of individuals to new ideas and environmental awareness.Originality/valueThis study provides hotel managers with a better understanding of the relationship between environmental knowledge and organisational outcomes and highlights that managers need to provide and support an unlearning context, which is customised and based on three frameworks: the framework for examining the lens through which individuals view situations; the framework for changing individual habits and the framework for consolidating emergent understandings.

PurposeThis paper aims to analyze the production function nexus between higher education practice and the development of innovation‐related competencies by university graduates in Spain. The research hypothesis is the presence of statistically significant relationships between the development of innovational competencies and the modes of teaching and learning used in higher education practice.Design/methodology/approachThe relationships are modeled through a set of stochastic frontier and variance component equations with the development of each competency as the dependent variable. The main explanatory variables capture the prevalence of diverse teaching/learning modes and the behavior of graduates during their studies. Controls for individual and study programs are also included. Data comes from the European graduate survey REFLEX and includes about 5,500 records.FindingsEstimates show evidence of significant marginal effects of the teaching and learning modes and the development of specific competencies by graduates. Proactive methods in general, and problem‐based learning in particular, appear as the most effective classroom practices to develop the competencies required to innovate in the workplace.Research limitations/implicationsTo guide the implementation of reforms in higher education, more must be learned about possible trade‐offs between the diverse types of resources involved and the outcomes obtained. Resources should be examined in terms of their relative costs and the results interpreted with regard to their value to individuals and society.Originality/valueTo the authors' knowledge, this is the first paper to explore quantitatively the influence of higher education practice on the development of the capabilities required to innovate in the workplace.

PurposeThe paper sets out to understand the key issues that emerge in the context of decision making.Design/methodology/approachThe paper is a literature review.FindingsFirst, the authors review debates around talent management decision making. Second, they examine some of the main factors currently influencing decision making in talent management. Third, they seek to identify some future research areas that will inform future decision making in talent management.Practical implicationsThe paper will be of interest to practitioners in designing and developing talent management decision systems.Originality/valueThe paper presents a state of the art review of talent management decision marking.

PurposeThe aim of this paper is to present a macro view of the evolution of innovation for value creation, from the closed to collaborative, open, and now co‐innovation. It reviews several mega trends that have dramatically changed the dynamic nature of the global market place and also several new forces that have made innovation imperative for organizational value creation.Design/methodology/approachThe paper provides a conceptual overview of co‐innovation through some of its basic elements such as convergence revolution, collaboration, and co‐creation with stakeholders.FindingsCo‐innovation is a new innovation paradigm where new ideas and approaches from various internal and external sources are integrated in a platform to generate new organizational and shared values. The core of co‐innovation includes engagement, co‐creation, and compelling experience for value creation. Thus, the practices of co‐innovative organizations are difficult to imitate by competition.Practical implicationsInnovation is imperative for organizational survival in today's turbulent global market. This conceptual paper presents many real‐world examples of co‐innovative firms' strategies that can provide new insights for follower organizations.Social implicationsInnovation is a universal strategy for every organization, be it a firm, non‐profit organization, or even a government agency. The new innovation approaches suggested in the paper can contribute to social reforms such as creating shared value for all stakeholders.Originality/valueThis is an original paper that presents a broad‐stroke direction and vision for new organizational strategies for innovation.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to explore the origins of the two types of green innovations: proactive and reactive green innovations.Design/methodology/approachIn order to satisfy the essence of the triangulation in methodology, this study applies a hybrid research method which includes both qualitative and quantitative research to discuss the origins of green innovations based on the two following stages. First, the study uses inductive logic from the perspectives of case study research and grounded theory to build the research framework and selects AU Optronics Corp. (AUO), the worldwide top three manufacturer in the TFT‐LCD industry, as the research object. Second, the study utilizes a questionnaire survey method to test the research framework proposed in the first stage.FindingsThis study divides green innovations into two types: proactive and reactive green innovations, because their origins are different. The results show that both of the internal origins – environmental leadership, environmental culture, and environmental capability and the external origins – the environmental regulations and the environmentalism of investors and clients – can generate reactive green innovation. However, only the internal origins can facilitate proactive green innovation. This study suggests that companies should invest their resources in cultivating the internal origins rather than the external origins.Originality/valueThe paper provides insights into what origins cause proactive and reactive green innovations by means of hybrid research method – qualitative and quantitative research – in Taiwan. This study builds up a theory about the origins of the two types of green innovations.

PurposeThe main aim of this paper is to present a framework to create a better understanding of the context and aid the portfolio management process. The paper seeks to present a case to illustrate the proposed methodology, identifying and measuring the success parameters for a project in a portfolio.Design/methodology/approachThe research method is a qualitative and quantitative mixture and it is presented as a study case. The primary data were obtained using semi‐structured interviews with decision makers. Bibliographic research is used in order to construct the theoretical framework and the intervention instrument adopted is the multicriteria decision aiding methodology – constructivist (MCDA‐C).FindingsThe methodology allows the criteria that must be taken into account, according to the decision makers' values and preferences in the project selection and sorting processes, to be visualized. The framework supports the ordinal and cardinal measurement of the project performance, making it possible to compare and rank proposals, as well as providing a process to improve project proposals.Practical implicationsThis process has helped in negotiations between stakeholders in a portfolio context and, consequently, has helped the chief project officer (CPO) to select and prioritize strategic projects within the demand for new products.Originality/valueThis paper offers an empirical understanding of the application of performance measurement to portfolio management context and identifies complementary tools in this interdisciplinary area.

PurposeThe objective of this paper is to collate and debate the main issues driving the stakeholder theory academic debate.Design/methodology/approachFirst, a discussion of the stakeholder concept is set out before moving on to the history and nature of stakeholder theory. The work proceeds with an attempt to bring together systematically the points of divergence among researchers interested in stakeholder theory, and, finally, there is a brief discussion of these theoretical loopholes in conjunction with a proposed research agenda for the field.FindingsBased on the unification of the theoretically problematic issues, research agenda are put forward with the objective of clarifying doubts and resolving the controversies ongoing among academics. As regards the formulation of stakeholder theory, one question requiring resolution is that of the stakeholder concept itself. Additionally, further research should focus on the boundaries as to what constitutes a stakeholder group as well as defining the criteria for attributing individual membership of one or another group. In practical theoretical application, it is correspondingly necessary to target research on aspects such as conflicts of interest between stakeholders and management difficulties in coping with multiple objectives. Finally, there is a need for research that systematizes the knowledge produced with the objective of attaining the theoretical convergence necessary for the development of stakeholder theory.Originality/valueThe main contribution of this paper derives from the systematization of the various shortcomings that need overcoming within the framework of stakeholder theory and the identification of research agendas.

PurposeSeeking to distil and integrate a range of previous definitions, models, frameworks and classifications relating to types of innovation, this paper aims to make a contribution to clarity in innovation research and practice through offering insights into the definitions of the different types of innovation, and, specifically, the relationships between them.Design/methodology/approachThis theoretical paper is based on a review of extant models and frameworks of types of innovation, which includes earlier foundation models, and more recent integrative models.FindingsThis distillation results in a diagrammatic representation of the key frameworks, which is used as a platform to propose a new framework of types of innovation.Originality/valueThis paper draws on all the terminologies used for types of innovation and creates an innovation type‐mapping tool that can be used to clarify the various definitions and terminologies of the innovation type concept.

PurposeNumerous studies have set out to examine the relationship between strategic resources and firm performance. The traditional VRIO attributes have been the point of departure in most resource‐based studies. This paper sets out to argue that the relationship between resources and performance is more complex. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to illustrate the complex relationship between a strategic resource and firm performance by providing an overview of different factors that can influence this relationship.Design/methodology/approachRelevant literature is reviewed and discussed.FindingsIt was found that five criteria must be fulfilled for resources to generate superior performance. These are identified and discussed. These criteria fit with existing resources, management capability, marketing capability, firm appropriation of rent, and non‐competitive disadvantages.Research limitations/implicationsBy using the criteria identified, resource‐based theory can become less tautological. Also, the criteria highlight the importance of resource utilization and appropriation of resource‐based rents.Practical implicationsThe paper could contribute to an increased awareness among practitioners of the importance of focusing on factors which are additional to the VRIO‐attributes when analyzing potential strategic resources. The criteria provide an easy‐to‐access framework for strategic analysis.Originality/valueWhereas some specific aspects of the relationship between the possession of resources and firm performance have been reviewed in some RBT contributions, few studies have addressed the issue using a more holistic approach. Thus, this paper affords a broader approach on the relationship between strategic resources and firm performance.

PurposeThe divide in the conceptualisation of the terms “management” and “leadership” is not clear. The purpose of this paper is to explore the concepts of management and leadership.Design/methodology/approachThe approach of the study followed a synthesis review and also applied content analysis, identifying the tasks constituting management and leadership respectively.FindingsThe findings of the literature review demonstrated that the concepts of management and leadership are intertwined. The word “management” has French and Italian roots, while the word “leadership” has Greek and Latin roots. Essentially, though, these words are synonymous. All of the tasks fall within the boundaries of management, while leadership tasks overlap with management. Unlike management, leadership has no distinct task that falls exclusively within its boundary.Practical implicationsImplications of the findings of the study include debate regarding how practising managers can know what is expected of them if the literature is unclear on the distinction between these concepts, and playing down the demonstrated need and relevance of management.Originality/valueThis paper is original as no previous work on management and leadership has attempted to compare the content of these concepts.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to critically review the relationship between management research and practice particularly in the UK.Design/methodology/approachThe paper takes the form of an historical survey of initiatives and different conceptual approaches.FindingsThe paper reveals a central focus on the role of management consultants in mediating between management practice and management knowledge,Research limitations/implicationsThe paper is a partial and limited analysis of a complex process: more work is needed to untangle the various institutional roles and conceptual frameworks.Practical implicationsRe‐framing the relationship between management research and practice to consider a greater emphasis on practice engaged scholarship and the two way process of knowledge translation.Originality/valueThe paper encourages a new perspective amongst policy makers, researchers and management consultants.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to introduce this special issue of Management Decision and discuss the key question “Should sport be taken seriously?”. Design/methodology/approach – The themes of the special issue are discussed and each paper is introduced. Findings – Sport should be taken seriously because it has a significance beyond the field of play. It has become a commodified activity which creates and consumes wealth and can be used as a context for management research. Originality/value – Rarely before has sport been taken seriously in a management research context. This guest editorial and the special issue that follows it begin that debate.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to show how one of the biggest phenomena of the twenty‐first century is the internationalisation of professional sports and how premier league football epitomises this. With the influx of foreign players, managers and now owners, European League Football has become big business. This paper aims to provide a theoretical analysis of the management implications of foreign players in the English Premiership League football – renamed the Barclays Premier League to suit the needs of its major sponsors.Design/methodology/approachThe approach adopted is purely qualitative in nature, evaluating the top Barclays Premier League teams and the impact of globalisation on their reconfigurations since the early 1990s to date. The study draws mainly from a review of the extant literature on sports and management, as well as a critical analysis of media reports.FindingsGlobalisation has emerged as a new force that has changed the way corporations are managed. Financial services, retail and information technology firms have all responded to this new wave – and so also has sports. Unfortunately while sports have the potential to teach lessons on management strategy, management researchers seem to have relegated sports to the sociology and psychology disciplines.Practical implicationsThe Barclays Premier league football provides a unique environment for management decisions and processes to occur in a range of markets and at varied levels. However, the globalisation of professional sports has received relatively very little attention in the academic literature – especially in the field of business and management.Originality/valueThis paper contributes to the scant literature on the management implications of football by highlighting how globalisation has affected and reconfigured professional sports using the influx of foreign players into the English football league as a point of departure.

PurposeIn order to identify expatriate roles in a subsidiary it is necessary to go beyond those functions which are subservient to the headquarters. This paper sets out to prescribe a new spectrum of development roles with respect to varying capabilities and development needs of local employees.Design/methodology/approachThe roles of expatriates are analyzed based on seven case studies conducted with top automobile manufacturers in Thailand: Toyota Motor Thailand; Hino Motors (Thailand); Honda Automobile (Thailand); Isuzu Motors (Thailand); BMW (Thailand); DaimlerChrysler (Thailand); and Auto Alliance (Thailand).FindingsFour types of expatriate roles – commander, conductor, coach, and connector – are proposed; the roles correspond to the degree of task readiness and managerial capabilities of local employees.Practical implicationsThe paper provides a tool that will help expatriates understand their roles according to the technical skills and managerial capabilities of local employees.Originality/valueThe paper offers practical advice for diagnosing expatriate roles and their training prior to assignment to a subsidiary.

PurposeDespite the level of knowledge that has been accumulated over the years on the intricacies of decision making and strategy development there have been no attempts in the literature of strategic management to consolidate the diverse perspectives in the field in order to develop a more reflective theory that imparts better understanding on the process of decision making. This paper attempts to integrate two key viewpoints in order to take full advantage of their combined strengths to overcome their individual weaknesses and so develop a framework for decision making that portrays a more accurate and dynamic methodology in its process and it is more complete in its contents.Design/methodology/approachThe paper is based on a critical examination of the relevant literature and includes the author's view on the subject.FindingsThe paper makes explicit the technical and cognitive aspects of the process of decision making and provides a holistic framework for strategy development.Practical implicationsEducators and companies that accentuate single‐perspective approaches to decision making create an environment that hinders individual performance and effective management practice.Originality/valueThe work brings together timeless academic thought and reflection in order to develop an integrative framework for decision making to elevate understanding and management practice.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to look at why organizational disasters happen, and to discuss how organizations can improve their ability to recognize and respond to warning events and conditions before they tailspin into catastrophe.Design/methodology/approachA review of research on organizational disasters suggests that there are a number of information difficulties that can prevent organizations from noticing and acting on warning signals. The paper describes these difficulties using recent examples of organizational mishaps from: 9/11, Enron, Merck Vioxx withdrawal, Barings Bank collapse, Columbia Space Shuttle breakup, and Children's Hospital Boston.FindingsThe paper identifies three types of information impairments that could lead to organizational disasters: epistemic blind spots, risk denial, and structural impediment. It examines common information and decision practices that make it hard for organizations to see and deal with warning signals. Finally, the paper suggests what individuals, groups, and organizations can do to raise their information vigilance.Originality/valueThe paper shows that organizational disasters have a structure and dynamic that can be understood, and proposes a number of strategies by which organizations can become better prepared to recognize and contain errors so as to avert disaster.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to provide an assessment framework for evaluating the success of knowledge management (KM) initiatives in a government setting.Design/methodology/approachThe approach used was to first conduct a brief review of the leading thinking on KM and intellectual capital (IC) measurement approaches. The selection process used to recommend the results‐based management assessment framework (RMAF) as the most appropriate measurement framework is then discussed together with the development of logic models for all KM objectives. Finally, the validation methodology used, a survey design and data collection methodology, is described.FindingsThe study finds that the RMAF framework proved to be a good fit for KM assessment in a government setting.Research limitations/implicationsThe evaluation of KM and IC are necessarily organization‐specific. Further research is needed to report on the generalizability of this evaluation approach.Practical implicationsThe KM evaluation approach proposed here helped the government organization translate its KM strategy into action and enhanced management of the KM program. The proposed evaluation approach will help ensure that each type of stakeholder receives assessment results in a form that is of greatest use to them.Originality/valueWhile there are many KM and IC metrics described in the literature, there have been limited attempts to address the evaluation question from a more holistic perspective. This paper shows how quantitative and qualitative measures can be combined to better assess the success of KM initiatives in a systematic and concrete manner.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to outline a model that is conceptually and empirically applicable by practitioners in contexts extending beyond mere core competence identification.Design/methodology/approachThis paper presents a conceptual review of a model.FindingsThis paper demonstrates that the associated concepts (competence, capability, and resources) have characteristics that differ both conceptually and empirically. The findings also indicate that competencies are central to core competence matters; it is possible to distinguish them analytically by three criteria. Furthermore, the notions of hierarchy suggested in previous research could not be verified which implies that the associated concepts all reside at the same hierarchy level.Research limitations/implicationsThe findings advance core competence theories that better serve the needs of practicing managers and consultants, by initiating a specific research agenda in conceptual and empirical reviews and discussions. By proposing a model, the study provides a point of departure for core competency research that goes beyond matters of identification.Practical implicationsThe dissimilar characteristics of the associated concepts offer great opportunities to core competency management, by means of the different influences they have on core competencies. Their influence makes organizational change and rejuvenation not only comprehensible, but also manageable. This is of particular importance to organizations that need ongoing renewal of core competencies, for example, when facing dynamic business environments. Competence improvements manage and change core competencies; capability supports reinforce and create structure before, during, and after a change process; resource utilizations are operative, and need daily attention.Originality/valueThe paper initiates a new research agenda for core competency matters by acknowledging specific features of the concepts associated with core competence. This makes a significant contribution to the existing literature in terms of practical and scholarly applicability.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to identify and define the types of organizational alignment – vertical and horizontal; to examine the evidence for the alignment‐performance relationship, and propose research questions and practical implications to advance the theory and practice of managing alignment.Design/methodology/approachThe study is a conceptual examination based on a thorough review of both theoretical and empirical research.FindingsThe paper finds that vertical alignment has received considerably more attention in the literature. Studies of horizontal alignment within organizations are less common. When horizontal alignment is studied, the focus tends to be dyadic – between two functional areas. The limitations posed by the dyadic approach suggest gaps in the research and opportunities for future research. As firms grow and diversify, becoming multi‐business organizations, the importance of horizontal alignment will be elevated.Research limitations/implicationsResearch on vertical alignment should focus on developing larger sets of moderating variables, such as the morale of the workforce, or the life cycle of the firm or industry. Research on horizontal alignment should explore multi‐point horizontal alignment.Practical implicationsManagers in organizations with multiple strategic business units could use the application questions in the study to assess the state of alignment in their respective units and the organization as a whole.Originality/valueThe paper documents existing literature on the concept of organizational alignment and identifies new opportunities to continue to build and expand the research stream. It also provides a list of application questions that may be used to assess organizational alignment in organizations.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to develop a deeper understanding of the role of the balanced scorecard in strategy implementation.Design/methodology/approachThis paper provides a review of strategy implementation literature to identify the main inhibitors of successful strategy implementation and then proceeds to critically review the balanced scorecard and evaluate the contribution it can make to strategy implementation, in particular how it may be able to mitigate the problems associated with strategy implementation.FindingsIt is argued in the paper that the balanced scorecard, subject to the adoption of suitable processes, can address the key problems associated with strategy implementation including communication, the role of middle managers and integration with existing control systems. The study raises a series of research questions and proposes avenues for further research.Practical implicationsMore than half strategies devised by organisations are never actually implemented. At a time of increasing competition and globalisation; shorter lead times and increased customer sophistication, the effectiveness of strategy implementation is even more important. The findings of this study will provide the basis for research that will improve this vital management activity.Originality/valueThe effective implementation of corporate strategy is often overlooked in strategic management literature. There is still recognition that there is a need for further research. By combining two eclectic fields of research, i.e. strategy implementation and performance measurement, it is proposed that new insights can be gained to inform future practice.

Purpose – The aim of this paper is to show how a university‐industry partnership can be used in two key ways. First, to contribute to academia through the development of new research methodology and improved understanding of the subject area (total quality management (TQM)). Second, to add to organisational learning by developing critical reflection and reflexivity in employees and managers involved in the partnership and the development of TQM in the organisation. Design/methodology/approach – The paper critiques the partnership between the author's university and a large utility organisation over a four‐year period. The development of academic and organisational learning over this period is discussed, with particular emphasis on the need for developing appropriate research methodologies in this type of environment. Findings – The paper has shown that partnerships between universities and organisations often experience difficulties due to apparently differing and incommensurate desired outcomes. Any part...

PurposeThe purpose of this article is to record an interview with Laura D. Tyson, Dean of London Busness School.Design/methodology/approachThe paper focuses on the school's diversity, the work of its new research centres, and issue of funding and of competition between business schools.FindingsThere is a lack of female business school candidates, recruitment, retention and re‐entry of women into the workforce, There is the need for more women at board level.Originality/valueThe paper emphasises the importance of the teaching of ethics in business schools and looks at the role of business in promoting economic development and reducing poverty.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to contribute to the creation of a complexity theory of strategy by integrating a number of ideas that have previously been explored independently in the strategy literature, namely improvisation, minimal structures, simple rules, dynamic capabilities, bricolage, and organizational resilience.Design/methodology/approachOrganizations are taken as complex adaptive systems that align with their environments through interaction and response rather than analysis and planning. The paper discusses how Schumpeterian environments influence organizations in the direction of simpler, minimally‐structured designs and considers why Schumpeterian environments create the need for strategic improvisation and minimally‐structured designs.Research limitations/implicationsThe paper articulates recent concepts in the management literature. The integration of these new concepts may be relevant to explore the way they relate with each other in the emerging organizational configurations. A model is proposed for further empirical testing.Originality/valueThis contribution challenges the old representation of the strategic process as one involving complex organizations with simple people (except at the top), to one where simple organizations enable complex and professional people to create the strategy in an intentional, even if not always planned, response to the concrete world.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to describe linkages between the techniques of poetical expression and the language used by scholars to communicate management practice.Design/methodology/approachThe approach is to consider the stylistic perspective of the language used for management theorising or research, viewing the documents produced by management researchers as communicating devices and cultural products which contribute to the creation or construction of the reality that they seek to describe and analyse.FindingsThe paper uncovers the poetic aspects buried – often deeply – in the language of management studies through which the concepts of, and ideas about, management are expressed.Originality/valueThe links between ways of saying usually considered to be in opposition are made known, and enjoyed.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to offer a meditation on what is especial, and especially difficult, about poetry in its guise as inspiration for, or expression of, efforts and accomplishments in other human and social disciplines such as teaching or research or leadership. At the time of writing, the author – an educational researcher, policy adviser and poet – has been invited to act as poet‐in‐residence at a conference on interprofessional learning and practice in spring 2006; she is taking the opportunity of this paper to think out loud about the possible responsibilities and rewards of such a role; about what kinds of relationship between poetry and these other modes of being‐in‐the‐world are feasible; and about what kinds of integrity, intrinsic to poetry, need to be made room for in such relationships. Responding to some persuasive ideas of Abbs (academic and poet) and Heaney (poet and literary critic) about the tasks of the poet and the value of poetry respectively, the author argues that poetry is characterised above all by its “gratuitousness” – a notion which is expounded in the paper – and that therefore the straightforward application of poetry to non‐poetic contexts and purposes, as a sort of superior didactic instrument, is worth questioning.Design/methodology/approachThe paper makes some recommendations for relating the practice of poetry to the practice of professionalism in whatever sphere without detriment to the essential tasks of poetry.FindingsThe paper concludes that the especial gift of poetry, as “something made in language”, is to enlarge our imaginations; that a poet's paradoxical responsibility is therefore to do the ungovernable work of the imagination; and that it is the quality of silences (as well as of words) in poetry which give such work its force and meaning.Originality/valueWhilst acknowledging that poetry may often be used as an expression of efforts and accomplishments in other human and social disciplines, the paper takes poetry seriously as an aesthetic and ethical practice in its own right.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to explore the power of using poetry as a process of critical reflection and organisational analysis in the management process. It intends to bring to life Armstrong's concepts of “organisation‐in‐the‐mind” and use critical role analysis in the interactions between manager and member of staff.Design/methodology/approachThis is a qualitative, interpretive study using first and second person inquiry. Poems are created from the experiences of two organisational members in dialogue in relation to their roles and focus on specific decision‐making critical incidents within the life of the organisation. The creation of poetry is used as a form of communication and provides a focus for thematic analysis of key organisational themes and issues.FindingsThe creative use of poetry to illuminate unconscious processes and organisational issues has enabled revitalised working relationships and a new perspective on the organisational dynamic. The critical incidents and surrounding events caused considerable emotional discomfort. Writing in the form of poetry enabled a finding of voice, increased personal learning, and new insights in relation to roles, management processes of decision‐making and interpersonal dynamics in the organisation.Research limitations/implicationsThis paper contributes to understanding the importance of unconscious processes in gaining an understanding of organisational dynamics and management processes. These processes are brought to light through the creation of poetry to sit alongside rational modes of understanding and analysis.Originality/valueThe approach is under‐developed and largely unrecognised in relation to management processes. Reflection and analysis through the use of poetry offers an important contribution to the work of organisational analysis.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to present a piece of empirical work that investigates the current role and status of qualitative research within the management field.Design/methodology/approachThe research is based on 45 in‐depth qualitative interviews with members of a range of different stakeholder groups, including: journal editors; qualitative researchers; Doctoral Programme Leaders; practitioners; and those who fund qualitative management research.FindingsThe findings suggest that there is considerable variety in definitions of qualitative research; that there are still a number of issues surrounding the status and credibility of qualitative research within the field; and there is a need for greater access to researcher training in this area.Practical implicationsThe paper is of practical interest to qualitative researchers in that it details some of the issues surrounding publishing qualitative work.Originality/valueThe paper presents original empirical work in this field.

The purposeThe purpose of the paper is to argue that poetry should be integrated in research to a much larger extent than it is today, where poetry (at best) is considered inferior to research.Design/methodology/approachThe arguments are based on qualitative studies of the Danish independent labels. The empirical data are applied both as backbone for and part of the article and its construction. The article argues with the help and illustration of own research and experience that poetry inspires, stimulates and develops the research process. Poetry should be considered as a way of writing alongside other writing styles that researchers apply to make sense of their fieldwork.FindingsThe different forms of reporting research can be used to give us different views, in general, and that poetry can be used throughout the research process to improve it, in particular. The paper provides some examples of how it can be done. It is certainly not an exhaustive list but inspirational for researchers to find new poetic ways to improve their research process.Research limitations/implicationsThe article shows in practice (from own field research), the implications poetry might have on the research process, but it is limited related to all the non‐mentioned ways poetry could be helpful in the research process. The limitations are obviously those of the researcher, who has been reporting own experiences and ideas about how poetry improved his own research process. In other words: the limitations are found both in the imagination of the researcher and in the reported research.Originality/valueThe study and the reporting of it are original. No other articles have approached the subject in this particular way, making the article unique in form as well as contents. The article shows how poetry (the whole broad range of poetic forms) can contribute to research and the research process. The value of poetry is not limited to the research process it is exemplified by and related to in this article. It has value and can be applied far beyond that (e.g. to the practice of manager).

PurposeThe management profession has a long and well‐documented history adopting and abandoning “fads” promulgated by a series of thinkers, practitioners, and opinion leaders who enjoy a “guru” like status. The purpose of this paper shows that stereotyping contributes to the existence of this guru‐fad phenomenon.Design/methodology/approachThe paper examines the characteristics of both management fads and the phenomenon of stereotyping with reference to two leading historical management practitioners and thinkers, Henri Fayol and Mary Parker Follett.FindingsDrawing on the examples of Mary Parker Follett and Henri Fayol, it argues that the influence exerted by other management gurus and fads, such as Frederick Winslow Taylor's Scientific Management and Elton Mayo's Human Relations Movement, gave rise to a stereotyped view of both Follett and Fayol's work that prevented an accurate appraisal of their ideas.Research limitations/implicationsIn addition, this paper notes that, while Follett and Fayol exhibited an extraordinary capacity to identify the very issues that have spawned many subsequent management fads, the contemporary management discipline's approach to both thinkers is quite different. While Follett has escaped her earlier stereotypes, allowing management thinkers a new opportunity to re‐assess her work and value its contemporary relevance, Fayol remains misclassified as a European Taylorist who has little to offer the contemporary management practitioner.Originality/valueThis paper provides an interesting insight into the characteristics of both management fads and the phenomenon of stereotyping.

PurposeMotivated by the call of the Congress for Industrial Organizations (CIO) for greater labour involvement in management (a call informed by the principles of the Taylor Society), US business launched a crusade in 1944 under the banner, “The Right to Manage”. The purpose of this paper is to extend earlier explorations of the ideas that inspired the leaders of the CIO.Design/methodology/approachThrough examining the work of the neglected feminist, and labour and social activist, Mary van Kleeck, the paper shows how the ideas concerning the democratisation of management, and the determination of decision making by knowledge, not profit, evolved into Taylorism's principal tenets.FindingsThe paper finds that an analysis of Mary van Kleeck's work helps explain why many of the ideas that prevailed among inter‐war Taylor Society members deeply disturbed employers, while concomitantly enthusing the CIO.Originality/valueThis paper redresses the view of scientific management's history that misleadingly stresses the initial hostility between Taylor's circle and organised labour, which has become entrenched in management folklore and accepted as axiomatic within the discipline, while ignoring the subsequent commitment of Taylor and the Taylor Society to management democratisation.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to consider the value of management history as a contributor to the development of the theory and practice of management and, to the extent that it is necessary to absorb the past in order to understand the present and inform the future, consider what happens to the knowledge base when the surviving “contributions” to the knowledge base are partial and, indeed, erroneous. Design/Methodology/Approach – The articles that constitute this special issue form the launching-pad for this discussion, with the ideas presented here combined with previous research and commentaries on the issues raised. Research Limitations/Implications – In The Life of Reason, Santayana said, “Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it”. Managers looking for the “next big thing”, without being able to incorporate it effectively into their experience, and the experience of those who are long gone, are condemned to repeat not just the past, but also the mistakes of the past. Accordingly, it is also critical for management scholars to both recognise and take advantage of earlier thinking and empirical work to inform their contemporary musings and research if they are to provide meaningful frameworks for practitioners. Originality/Value – Drawing on the themes presented in the articles of this special issue, the paper demonstrates the value of knowing accurately the history of management thought to scholars and practitioners alike.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to reacquaint researchers and practitioners with Barnard's contributions to understanding of the moral conditions that underlie the authenticity of organizational leadership.Design/methodology/approachThe paper identifies Barnard's insights on leadership and uses them as inputs to theorizing about authentic leadership.FindingsAs an outcome of theorizing, the paper identifies the conditions that are likely to lead to inauthentic, pseudo‐authentic or authentic leader behavior.Research limitations/implicationsExamining authentic leadership from a historical perspective can open promising avenues for future research.Practical implicationsLeadership development programs should incorporate concepts of responsibility and conflicts of responsibility in order to provide executives with the knowledge base required for ethical decision making.Originality/valueBy placing contemporary discussion of authentic leadership in its proper historical context, scholars can draw on a wealth of existing theory to advance the study of authentic leadership.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine the impact of Fayol's ideas on both British management thought and practice.Design/methodology/approachThe paper presents a schematic which seeks to illustrate the links between the various strands of scientific management theory, especially that of Fayol, in Britain between the 1920s and the 1960s/1970s and, for the same period, the links between the theory and practice of scientific management. The links indicated in the schematic are assessed first through an examination of the development of British management thought, in particular the exemplification of Fayol's ideas by Lyndall Fownes Urwick and the British neoclassical school. Using archival evidence from a small number of engineering companies, the impact on practice of the ideas of Fayol and other aspects of scientific management is then examined.FindingsThe paper concludes that, while Fayol's theoretical influence has stood the test of time, his impact on practice was much more limited.Originality/valueBy focusing on the historical impact on practice of management theory, this paper not only provides a basis for future research by business and management historians, but also throws light on the relevance for practice of theory, an issue of relevance for all theoreticians and management practitioners.

PurposeTo create a starting point for defining the processes of leading and managing in a way that enables both the separation and distinction of the concepts for study as well as the integration of the concepts for practical application.Design/methodology/approachThe paper draws on research that describes specific behaviors involved in leading and in managing; and it proposed a model that might be used to think about the integration of the two processes – leading and managing. The paper further describes the specific competencies involved in both leading and in managing.FindingsThe paper suggests that the current literature is particularly confusing as a result of the lack of agreement and specificity regarding the nature of the processes of leading and managing. The literature suffers from a proliferation of “spin off” forms of leadership – such as strategic leadership, entrepreneurial leadership, etc. – as well as from using the two terms as replacements for each other.Originality/valueThis discussion should further the research on the study of leadership competencies and leadership behaviors. It should also prove useful to those wishing to develop leadership development programs, leadership selection criteria, and more.

PurposeThe purpose of this article is to elucidate the limitations of contemporary approaches to developing leaders and to present alternative approaches.Design/methodology/approachThis paper offers a review and critique of the assumptions on which current leadership programs are based.FindingsMost leadership training initiatives fail to produce leaders. Typical programs teach leadership theory, concepts, and principles; they promote leadership literacy but not leadership competence. Paradoxically, however, while leadership cannot be taught, leadership can be learned. Men and women become leaders by practice, by performing deliberate acts of leadership. The primary role of a good leader (one who is competent and ethical) is to establish and reinforce values and purpose, develop vision and strategy, build community, and initiate appropriate organizational change. This behavior requires character, creativity, and compassion, core traits that cannot be acquired cognitively.Practical implicationsFor those charged with the responsibility of developing leaders, the three necessary steps are to select the right candidates, create learning challenges, and provide mentoring. Those who seek to develop effective leadership training programs must first establish a metric for assessing leadership effectiveness. They must then design experiments that can establish a causal or statistically significant relationship between training initiatives and leadership competency. Evidence suggests that the most effective leadership programs will focus on building self‐knowledge and skills in rhetoric and critical thinking.Originality/valueThis paper challenges the utility of most leadership training. Leadership cannot be taught, although potential leaders can be educated.

PurposeTo provide an explanation of an approach to education and development for leadership in organizations, as distinct from education about leadership.Design/methodology/approachThe paper refers to leadership in private as well as public organizations and organizational units, to all types of managers including those of non‐supervisory functions affecting stakeholders, and even to personal affairs. It suggests a decision‐assisting model based on the issues that should be considered in decisions pertaining to matters involving leadership roles. It is based on three foundations: comparison of decision‐making practices involving leadership aspects of management with decision making in other professional fields; analysis of the actual and potential impact of leadership and motivation theories on leadership decisions; and responsibilities involved in effectively applying leadership to management activities in all fields.FindingsThe paper reports on the informal research process that resulted in the development of the model.Research implicationsExtensive possible research is outlined that could gradually overcome the enormous obstacles to empirical validation of the model.Practical implicationThe model is relatively simple, consisting of eight groups of considerations, in the form of questions that help to ensure that leadership decisions consider all relevant issues. The approach outlined here is highly practical and can easily be applied.Originality/valueThe model is unique and highly practical for all individuals who are in management and for those who are called on to assume leadership roles on teams, in their profession, in their family roles, and in other situations.

PurposeThis paper aims to specify a set of methodological stages to conduct case studies. It presents a graphical representation of these stages, describes how it assists management researchers to build theory from data gathered in the field, and outlines its value for achieving sound management research.Design/methodology/approachA sample of nine cases published in Management Decision within the last two years (2003‐2004) is selected in order to illustrate these processes.FindingsThe paper's major contribution to research methodology is to specify a set of guidelines for conducting case studies and being explicit in how to apply a series of quality criteria for evaluating case studies in practice. The proposal not only helps to conduct research, but also documents the links between the research topics (in the conceptual framework), data (observations and interpretations in the field), data analysis (coding using the concepts in the conceptual framework and emergent themes) and the theory and knowledge accumulated through the research process.Practical implicationsThe increasing use of case studies in management, and the desire to build theory from qualitative data, has highlighted a gap between existing proposals and the criteria for rigorous case studies. This contribution helps to close this gap by providing guidelines and the practical application of the quality principles. It assists management researchers working in these paradigms to build theory from qualitative data.Originality/valueThe proposal adds to the tools that management researchers can follow to produce sound research. This paper illustrates several case studies in order to show their epistemological approach, and to evaluate their quality level by applying our principles.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to trace Douglas McGregor's Theory Y thinking back from pre‐industrial revolution philosophers up through McGregor and his contemporaries and to explore how Theory Y evolved after its introduction.Design/methodology/approach – This is a review article relying on literature reviews and synthesizing concepts and ideas from related sources.Findings – This article examines the emergence of Theory Y as one of the hallmark relationship management principles of the last half of the 20th century. McGregor stands in a unique place in management history. He has one foot in the early human relations movement, and another foot in the movement of scholars who advocated a heightened awareness of management's responsibility for the human side of employer‐employee relations. McGregor serves as a true facilitator for growth and advancement in the field of management, in general, and human relations, in particular.Originality/value – This paper holds value to management scholars and p...

PurposeTo provide practitioners and researchers with a framework for using individuals' multiple intelligences (MI) to enhance team productivity.Design/methodology/approachThis paper is a general review paper that examines how the theory of MI as espoused by Gardner may be used to enhance the productivity of teams. Based on its use in organizational training, it is suggested that MI theory can and should be applied in the context of organizational teams. This descriptive paper is divided into the following sections: literature reviews of team development, team building, MI, and the use of MI in organizational training; and the development of a framework for using MI to enhance team productivity.FindingsProvides information about how individual team members' varying degrees of the eight MI espoused by Gardner may be used to enhance their contributions to the team. Suggests that the enhanced contributions from team members will lead to enhanced team productivity, and ultimately, enhanced organizational productivity.Research limitations/implicationsEmpirical research is needed to test the MI and team productivity framework presented. Additionally, from a conceptual and empirical perspective, the relationship between team productivity and other contemporary dimensions of intelligence, such as cultural, emotional, and practical intelligences, need to be investigated.Practical implicationsA very useful framework for managers to use as a tool to enhance the productivity of their teams by encouraging members to use their complementary intelligences to successfully accomplish team goals.Originality/valueNo other paper offers managers a practical framework to encourage team members to use more than just their written and verbal intelligences to complete an assigned task.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the relationship between three concepts: organisations, transformability and the dynamics of strategy. These three concepts together with their interrelationships are central in explaining the life cycle of organisations, their survival and renewal.Design/methodology/approachThe development of this explanation has been based on bringing together a diversity of perspectives. Each perspective provides a horizon of understanding by directing attention in a particular way. The benefits of this approach are that it avoids the pitfalls of one‐dimensionalism. This approach more accurately reflects the multi‐faceted reality within which organisations operate.FindingsDiscusses, compares and contextualises the findings and approaches of the papers in this special issue.Originality/valueThe perspectives considered represent a small sample of the diversity that exists. However, this sample as serves a starting‐point in developing a wider, more holistic debate that aims to bring theory and practice together.

This paper explores the structure and role of management education in teaching and learning management with reference to the structure (hierarchy) and control of the education process. The paper also attempts to question our fear and desire to learn and our fear and desire for learners with reference to the usefulness of management education.

The topic whether management skills are communicable has been the topic of scholars' debates and broad examination through literature in the last decades. However, there is less literature focusing on solutions for successful management education. This paper, not only takes up a position that management can be taught and learned, but also examines how the learning process is approached. The paper discusses characteristics of successful management educators and determine their impacts on management development. The paper determines the qualities and skills that modern managers must develop, especially in this time of globalization and rapid change in the business world. It suggests educating managers in “soft skills” such as interpersonal and intrapersonal skills and not merely concentrating on the “hard skills”, such as analytical skills. Additionally in this work, the need for managers with international exposure and cross‐cultural experience is emphasized. Finally, a proposal for management education curricula is tabled and address the issue of limits of management education is addresed.

This paper describes a research program, spanning three decades, on the development of a model of leadership style – specifically, the form and degree to which managers should involve team members in decision making. The model distinguishes five levels of participation and, in its current form, 11 situational factors which influence the effects of participation on decision quality, implementation, time, and team development. Pencil and paper and computer‐based representations of the model are described and compared. Finally, the paper concludes with a discussion of the use of the model in management development. Based on experience in training managers in many countries around the world, the author argues that didactic expositions of the model are largely ineffective in producing behavior change unless accompanied by experiential activities which enable managers to examine their own implicit assumptions about the consequences of sharing their decision making power.