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This study provides the sorption isotherm, its hysteresis and their mass transfer properties of four Central Africa Tropical woods widely used for building construction: frake (Terminalia Superba), lotofa (Sterculia Rhinopetala), sapele (Entandrophragma Cylindricum) and ayous (Triplochiton Scleroxylon). Characterization of these four species in particular and Central Africa tropical woods in general were necessary to develop conservation and treatment of wood after first transformation using the drying. Also, moisture transport on wooden material used such as wall buildings can be facilitating to found the thermal comfort. Measurements of isotherms were performed using a dynamic vapor sorption apparatus (Surface Measurement Systems) at 20 and 40°C with air relative humidity ranged from 0% to 90%. Mass diffusivity was determined in steady state using a specific vaporimeter. Air permeability was determined using a specialized device developed to measure over a wide range of permeability values. Permeability and mass transfer properties were determined in the tangential direction with a ‘’false’’ quartersawn board (sapele and lotofa) and in the radial direction with a flatsawn board (ayous and frake). Samples of sapele, ayous and frake are heartwood when lotofa contains as well as heartwood than sapwood. Results obtained showed that the temperature effect on sorption behavior was quite low. We observed also a low difference between the sorption behavior of these different species and hysteresis of sorption decreases when temperature increases. Hailwood-Horrobin model’s explains plausibly the experimental sorption isotherms data. Results on characterization of mass transfer properties showed that, in the steady state, mass diffusivity decreases exponentially when basal density increases. Mass diffusivity was higher in desorption than in adsorption phase. The gaseous permeability of these species was between than those of Australian hardwoods and temperate woods. It was difficult to define a relationship between permeability and mass diffusivity.

During drying, stresses and deformations develop in a wood board due to shrinkage fields which result from moisture content and temperature field variations. In spite of numerous works done in wood drying modelling in the last decades, wood drying optimisation based on modelling and simulation remains far from initial expectations. Two main reasons can explain this assessment: the huge variability of wood and the variations in drying conditions throughout the board stack in a dryer. To address these two key problems, we used a dual scale numerical tool able to compute simultaneously the stress and deformation of hundreds of boards in the stack during drying. A rigorous one-dimensional mechanical formulation, based on previous works, has been used for calculating stress and deformation during drying. The mechanical model is fitted into a module and then added to a dual scale (board-stack) model. This numerical tool has been used to improve the drying schedules recommended by the Technical Centre for Wood and Furniture in France (CTBA) for spruce. The proposed drying schedules allow the board quality to be improved. Note that the optimisation was limited to medium temperature values, so that the proposed schedule can be applied to conventional kilns

This work presents an original experimental device conceived to characterise the viscoelastic properties of wood. Classically, the dynamic mechanical analysis of wood is performed using a commercial apparatus like a DMA (Dynamic Mechanical Analyser). However, when analysing wood with this type of apparatus, many problems related to the hygroscopic behaviour and the orthotropic structure of wood may be encountered. This is why an original apparatus perfectly adapted to the wood features has been developed. The WAVE T is able to measure the viscoelastic properties of wood samples under water-saturated conditions, in the temperature range of 5°C to 95°C at frequencies varying between 0.005 Hz and 10 Hz. Samples are tested in a cantilever configuration. The whole experiment has been designed to withstand the severe conditions of temperature and humidity. At the same time, an analytical model based on Kelvin’s elements has been developed. This model is able to correct experimental measurements performed close to the resonance frequency. Results obtained for beech samples in radial and tangential directions using the WAVE T and a commercial apparatus (DMA 2980 TA Instruments) are compared and discussed. This comparison underlines the relevance of the WAVE T device

A mesoscopic drying model that enables the drying simulation of quartersawn and flatsawn wood sections consisting of several growth rings is presented. The procedure to generate the virtual board description directly from real sample images is also described. This virtual structure accommodates the prominent sample features, including its geometrical and physical properties, together with the density and structural variation across the growth rings. We give a synopsis of the sophisticated techniques developed specifically to generate this virtual description and exhibit the final computational meshes produced by the software for quartersawn and flatsawn sections. Low temperature drying simulations are then performed for both heterogenous and homogeneous model variants using these virtual descriptions and comparisons are made of the resulting MC field evolution. A highlight of these comparisons is that the heterogeneous model captures realistic drying effects, including the fast drying of earlywood and the late removal of liquid water in latewood. In comparing the drying of quartersawn and flatsawn boards we conclude that the effect of the heterogeneous nature of the MC fields is diminished somewhat when considering the flatsawn section over the quartersawn section.

El objetivo de este artículo es mostrar la posibilidad de utilizar fuentes policromáticas de rayos X en experimentos relacionados con la madera en que normalmente se requiere de fuentes monocromáticas. Se presentan diferentes aplicaciones de espectrometría de rayos X en base a fuentes policromáticas conformadas por tubos sin dispositivos de monocromatización, pero usando detectores espectrométricos de alta resolución energética. En primer lugar se describe una aplicación de transmisión o atenuación de rayos X destinada a obtener la variación espacio-temporal del contenido de humedad al interior de una tabla en proceso de secado a 70°C y 50°C en bulbo seco y bulbo húmedo respectivamente. Esta aplicación permitió realizar una cartografía digital del interior de la tabla y se reveló útil para caracterizar el proceso de evacuación de la humedad desde el interior de la madera. Luego se presenta un equipamiento innovador diseñado y fabricado por los autores para registrar la intensidad de dispersión coherente de rayos X. Los resultados demuestran la posibilidad de acceder al contenido de humedad y el ángulo microfibrilar, cuantificando las señales espectrales registradas tanto para el agua como para el plano cristalino (002) de la celulosa. La existencia de una señal de fondo originada por la fase amorfa de la madera impidió realizar estimaciones cuantitativas de contenido de humedad cuando la densidad anhidra de la madera es desconocidaWe investigated the possibilities to use polychromatic X-rays sources to study wood properties that usually require of monochromatic radiation. Three applications using X-ray tubes without monochromator together with high-resolution energy-sensitive X-rays detectors are presented. In a first experiment, a standard X-ray source and a spectrometric detector were placed on both sides of a wood dryer which operates at 70°C and 50°C for dry-bulb and wet-bulb respectively. Digital cartography obtained can offer the possibility to identify some phenomenological parameters of fluid migration in wood. In a second part, an innovative device designed and made by the authors to record X-ray scatter intensities is presented. The feasibility to use the ratio of diffraction to attenuation for moisture content determination is discussed. This device has been also used for microfibril angle determination by recording and analyzing the X-ray scattered intensities of cellulose (002) lattice. The microfibril angle determination was successful; however, a background of X-rays scattering from amorphous component of wood prevented the determination of moisture content

The aim of this study is to visualise, measure and understand the pathway of liquid and gas at both macroscopic and microscopic levels on specimens of beech (Fagus silvatica and Fagus orientalis). The permeability to air and to water has been measured using devices developed in our laboratory. The extension of the area coloured by dyed water is available as well. At the microscopic level, the permeability has been calculated using Poiseuille's equation from the vessel diameters determined on cross sections by image processing. Using dyed water, the proportion of active vessels is also reported at different distances from the injection surface. Our data confirm that the permeability decreases significantly when the sample distance increases. Moreover, the value extrapolated for a zero-length sample is similar to the value predicted from the vessel diameters. This observation stands for both for sapwood and heartwood, in spite of the great permeability difference noticed between these zones. At the microscopic level, the percentage of active vessels decreases with the increase of sample total length and the increase of the distance from the injection point. Several simulations performed using a bond percolation model confirmed our experimental results obtained at the macroscopic and microscopic levels

The IUFRO 5.04.06 Wood Drying Conference was organised by the "Transilvania" University of Brasov - Faculty of Wood Industry and hosted by the Aro Palace Complex in Brasov (Romania). Over 100 scientists from 28 countries attended the meeting. Two Keynote Addresses: " The Role of Wood Anatomy in the Drying of Wood: "Great Oaks from Little Acorns Grow " by the Wood Drying Working Party Leader, Patrick PerrC (France) and " High-Frequency Heating Combined With Vacuum Drying Of Wood by Helmut Resch (Austria) was an excellent start of the technical program of over 80 oral presentations and 28 poster presentations. The topics of the 10 oral presentation sessions and the poster session covered modelling, stress and strain behaviour of wood, properties ofwood related to drying, fast drying procedures, applied drying, heat and mass transfer, kiln control, drying quality, colorations and general.

El objetivo de este artículo es mostrar la posibilidad de utilizar fuentes policromáticas de rayos X en experimentos relacionados con la madera en que normalmente se requiere de fuentes monocromáticas. Se presentan diferentes aplicaciones de espectrometría de rayos X en base a fuentes policromáticas conformadas por tubos sin dispositivos de monocromatización, pero usando detectores espectrométricos de alta resolución energética. En primer lugar se describe una aplicación de transmisión o atenuación de rayos X destinada a obtener la variación espacio-temporal del contenido de humedad al interior de una tabla en proceso de secado a 70ºC y 50ºC en bulbo seco y bulbo húmedo respectivamente. Esta aplicación permitió realizar una cartografía digital del interior de la tabla y se reveló útil para caracterizar el proceso de evacuación de la humedad desde el interior de la madera. Luego se presenta un equipamiento innovador diseñado y fabricado por los autores para registrar la intensidad de dispersión coherente de rayos X. Los resultados demuestran la posibilidad de acceder al contenido de humedad y el ángulo microfibrilar, cuantificando las señales espectrales registradas tanto para el agua como para el plano cristalino (002) de la celulosa. La existencia de una señal de fondo originada por la fase amorfa de la madera impidió realizar estimaciones cuantitativas de contenido de humedad cuando la densidad anhidra de la madera es desconocida. Abstract We investigated the possibilities to use polychromatic X-rays sources to study wood properties that usually require of monochromatic radiation. Three applications using X-ray tubes without monochromator together with high-resolution energy-sensitive X-rays detectors are presented. In a first experiment, a standard X-ray source and a spectrometric detector were placed on both sides of a wood dryer which operates at 70ºC and 50ºC for dry-bulb and wet-bulb respectively. Digital cartography obtained can offer the possibility to identify some phenomenological parameters of fluid migration in wood. In a second part, an innovative device designed and made by the authors to record X-ray scatter intensities is presented. The feasibility to use the ratio of diffraction to attenuation for moisture content determination is discussed. This device has been also used for microfibril angle determination by recording and analyzing the X-ray scattered intensities of cellulose (002) lattice. The microfibril angle determination was successful; however, a background of X-rays scattering from amorphous component of wood prevented the determination of moisture content.

This work presents an original experimental device conceived to characterise the viscoelastic properties of wood. Classically, the dynamic mechanical analysis of wood is performed using a commercial apparatus like a DMA (Dynamic Mechanical Analyser). However, when analysing wood with this type of apparatus, many problems related to the hygroscopic behaviour and the orthotropic structure of wood may be encountered. This is why an original apparatus perfectly adapted to the wood features has been developed. The WAVET is able to measure the viscoelastic properties of wood samples under water-saturated conditions, in the temperature range of 5°C to 95°C at frequencies varying between 0.005 Hz and 10 Hz. Samples are tested in a cantilever configuration. The whole experiment has been designed to withstand the severe conditions of temperature and humidity. At the same time, an analytical model based on Kelvin’s elements has been developed. This model is able to correct experimental measurements performed close to the resonance frequency. Results obtained for beech samples in radial and tangential directions using the WAVET and a commercial apparatus (DMA 2980 TA Instruments) are compared and discussed. This comparison underlines the relevance of the WAVET device.

During drying, stresses and deformations develop in a wood board due to shrinkage fields which result from moisture content and temperature field variations. In spite of numerous works done in wood drying modelling in the last decades, wood drying optimisation based on modelling and simulation remains far from initial expectations. Two main reasons can explain this assessment: the huge variability of wood and the variations in drying conditions throughout the board stack in a dryer. To address these two key problems, we used a dual scale numerical tool able to compute simultaneously the stress and deformation of hundreds of boards in the stack during drying. A rigorous one-dimensional mechanical formulation, based on previous works, has been used for calculating stress and deformation during drying. The mechanical model is fitted into a module and then added to a dual scale (boardstack) model. This numerical tool has been used to improve the drying schedules recommended by the Technical Centre for Wood and Furniture in France (CTBA) for spruce. The proposed drying schedules allow the board quality to be improved. Note that the optimisation was limited to medium temperature values, so that the proposed schedule can be applied to conventional kilns.

A mesoscopic drying model that enables the drying simulation of quartersawn and flatsawn wood sections consisting of several growth rings is presented. The procedure to generate the virtual board description directly from real sample images is also described. This virtual structure accommodates the prominent sample features, including its geometrical and physical properties, together with the density and structural variation across the growth rings. We give a synopsis of the sophisticated techniques developed specifically to generate this virtual description and exhibit the final computational meshes produced by the software for quartersawn and flatsawn sections. Low temperature drying simulations are then performed for both heterogenous and homogeneous model variants using these virtual descriptions and comparisons are made of the resulting MC field evolution. A highlight of these comparisons is that the heterogeneous model captures realistic drying effects, including the fast drying of earlywood and the late removal of liquid water in latewood. In comparing the drying of quartersawn and flatsawn boards we conclude that the effect of the heterogeneous nature of the MC fields is diminished somewhat when considering the flatsawn section over the quartersawn section.

In this work, the effects of moisture content variations produced by oscillating drying conditions have been studied by means of non-symmetrical drying (flying wood) and loaded drying (3-point bending test). The oscillating conditions are intended to produce a mechano-sorptive creep that is able to reduce drying stresses. However, our experimental data seem to prove that the activation of the mechano-sorptive creep by oscillations of the moisture content is very limited. Besides, the simulations showed that noisy conditions due to the kiln regulation already activate the mechano-sorptive creep, even for non-oscillating conditions, and could confuse the results. Contrary to the experimental observations, the implementation of classical mechano-sorptive models in the drying simulation model is far too optimistic, which means that these models are not suitable when the material is submitted to numerous oscillations.