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Abstract One of the main economic tools in Poland supporting the European agricultural policy are activities implemented in the scope of the Rural Development Programme (RDP). Their primary objective is the support of agricultural activity and equalisation of changes for the development of farms in areas with unfavourable environmental conditions, characterised by low soil productivity. The implementation of the RDP is a chance to improve the spatial structure of rural areas. Rational land use is an issue of key importance in the context of the production potential of agriculture. This paper presents the results of detailed analysis of literature concerning problematic areas. The analysis in this paper covers geodesic-cartographic sources of data on problem areas. The resources from databases of the real estate cadastre and other cartographic thematic studies were considered. One of the technical-legal instruments supporting rural development, namely the land consolidation process, was characterised. For the purposes of the development of the concept of the rational management of problem areas, primary criteria were determined (i.e. location, land relief, soil conditions in terms of quality and usefulness, etc.), as well as detailed criteria. The criteria were ascribed point weights. The effect of the research is the development of the concept of alternative management of agricultural problem areas in the process of the development of a land consolidation project. The obtained results in the form of georeferenced data permitted the development of a methodology of the management of agricultural problem areas during land consolidation works, applicable in any socio-economic condition, independent of the geographic location of the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to present the condition of spatial planning in small towns in the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodeship in Poland (urban municipalities up to 20,000 inhabitants) taking into account the analytical background in the form of a set of small towns (urban municipalities) in Poland. The authors posed the following research questions: (Q1) How up-to-date is the strategic planning document Study of conditions and directions of spatial development (SCDSDs) in small towns? (Q2) What is the coverage of small towns with local spatial development plans (LSDPs) and is it sufficient, and to what degree are decisions on development conditions (DCs) used in spatial planning in small towns? (Q3) What is the opinion of the inhabitants of a small town (Lipno) about spatial planning and public participation in the planning process conducted in the city in which they live? To achieve the aim of the study, the authors conducted a three-stage study consisting of a qualitative and a quantitative part. In the qualitative part, an assessment was conducted of the topicality of the Studies of Conditions and Directions of Spatial Development (SCDSDs) of small towns in the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodeship. In the quantitative part, we analysed and evaluated statistical data from the Local Data Bank of Statistics Poland concerning local spatial development plans (LSDPs) and decisions on development conditions (DCs) in small towns in the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodeship. At this stage, a questionnaire was also carried out using the Paper and Pencil Interview + Computer Assisted Web Interview (PAPI+CAWI) method, addressed to the community of the town of Lipno. The research shows that the problems in small towns are: low topicality of SCDSDs, and in the vast majority of the small towns analysed – very low LSDP coverage. These municipalities also issue the largest number of DCs, which exacerbates the spatial chaos. The questionnaire survey shows that residents are interested in issues related to the shaping of urban space, but indicate a lack of adequate knowledge on spatial planning, which lowers their participation in the process. They also recognise the great importance of spatial planning in socio-economic development, which translates into quality of life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The scarcity of space as a resource and dynamic social changes call for rational management of the available land. However, many countries today struggle with inefficient space management. One of the relevant issues is the surplus of land zoned as buildable. The paper investigates whether one of such countries, Poland, has developed an effective tool to resolve the issue. The paper analyses literature, government reports and opinions, and discourses of spatial planners and identifies primary drivers of changes in buildable land zoning policies introduced to the Polish spatial planning law in 2015. It focuses on one factor particularly, the overestimation of the demand for buildable land. An analysis of masterplans drafted according to the new regulations revealed that the new policy that seemingly offered alternative and effective tools for controlling buildable land overzoning turned out to be ambiguous and ineffective. Consequently, the regulations failed to eliminate the abuses they were designed to control. The example of the Polish planning regulations shows that ambiguous laws fail to produce the expected results and need to be specified more precisely, particularly regarding nomenclature, even if the intention behind them is good. [Display omitted] • The scarcity of space call for rational management of the available land • The overzoning of buildable areas motivated the legislator in Poland to rationalise the process of designating buildable land • The new regulations have certain ambiguities leading to some irregularities they were supposed to prevent [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The paper aims to position the concept of adaptive efficiency in planning theory, by providing insights on the conditions that explain why land use planning in some institutional contexts is able to adapt and improve more efficiently than in others. This is done by focusing on a specific planning goal: the control of residential sprawl. The paper presents a theoretical framework based on two models, one on the coordinating mechanisms regarding the use of land and one to explain institutional changes. This framework is exploited with empirical case studies where we compare the control of sprawl in the Netherlands, Belgium and Poland. The analysis diagnoses a duality of planning practices. Even though planning failures occur in the Netherlands as well, we provide evidence that Dutch land use planning has been able to efficiently adapt regulatory instruments and collaborative practices to societal changes. By contrast, Belgian and Polish planners face huge difficulties to incorporate new initiatives to control urban sprawl or, in more general terms, to reinforce their influence on land uses. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In many countries throughout the EU recent planning reforms have reduced the possibilities for comprehensive and long-term planning. This paper explores the factors that explain why one of these countries, Poland, lost many of its tools for coordinating the policies and practices affecting spatial organization at the local level. The study, based on the discourses of spatial planners, traces the institutionalisation of local spatial planning in Poland since the 1920s identifying dominant policy paradigms and internal and external determinants leading to the reform in the early 1990s. It shows that the planning reform was driven by attempts to adapt planning institutions to changing political and legal environments after 1989. The new institutional framework that emerged from the reform failed to introduce alternative and effective forms of local spatial planning. Once options for planning were reduced, it became difficult to revive them. The case of Poland shows that a revision of long-term planning institutions might have unexpected outcomes and that it might be difficult to restore particular instruments and planning approaches once they have been removed from the toolbox of the planning system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The requirement of accession nations to adopt European Union (EU) legislation, in particular the Nitrates Directive (91/676/EEC), has elevated the issue of nitrate pollution of water by agriculture to one of considerable political significance in Poland and other Central and Eastern European countries. This paper reports on the legislative and institutional changes made with the object of achieving compliance. Although harmonisation of Polish law with EU law has been achieved, this paper questions whether there has been sufficient institutional development to ensure the Nitrates Directive''s aims are attained in practice. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The main objective of this paper is to examine the relationship between the flexibility of spatial planning at the local level and the natural and socio-economic development indicators of municipalities. Seventy municipalities located around the most dynamically developing large urban centers in Poland (Krakow, Poznań, Tri-City, Warsaw, and Wrocław) were selected for the study, in which the records of 1131 local spatial plans enacted in 2017–2019 were analyzed in detail in terms of indicators including, but not limited to, characterizing the average area of the plans, the duration of the development procedure, and the intensity of residential development, the biologically active area. Development characteristics were identified through 30 indicators in six thematic groups (demographic, socio-professional, economic and settlement structures, natural environment, and spatial planning). The relationships between the two groups of indicators were analyzed using factor analysis. On this basis, three clusters were identified, explaining 32.9% of the variation. Such a relatively low result may indicate that the spatial policy pursued by local governments is highly individualized. It may also be concluded that the flexibility of spatial planning in general is weakly related to the characteristics of development, including natural and socio-economic development, and therefore its absence should not be an obstacle to it. • The level of flexibility of local spatial development plans in the surroundings of the largest cities varies greatly • The weak link of flexibility and development features is indicative of the individualization of spatial policy • There is an impact of environmental and landscape features on the extent and level of flexibility in spatial development plans [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increased development in rural and urban areas leads to a decrease in tree cover and reduces the ecosystem services that trees provide. Municipal authorities must consider managing trees on private land to ensure that residents have access to trees and green spaces. In doing so, they must frequently confront conflicting stakeholder views, which are driven by diverse public and private interests and impacted by the type of landscape in question. In this paper, we investigate stakeholders' views on tree removing on privately owned land, as represented by narratives about tree management in urban and rural municipalities, to assess whether a deliberation process can alter these views. We rely on the theory of wicked problems and apply two measurements by Q-method in two municipalities in Poland (N = 38 in both cases), with an intervening deliberation session between each measurement. The results reveal that, before the deliberation, narratives were divided mainly around the issue of where the right to decide about tree removing should reside. This division was visible in both municipalities, but was particularly pronounced in the rural one. The division was sharp and straightforward, and was linked with deeply shared values. After the deliberation, the narratives shifted and a new division emerged around the issue of how to organize the decision-making process and decision-making criteria. Moreover, after deliberation, the narratives of participants from both municipalities coalesced to a much greater extent than previously. The results prove that, although wicked problems do not have unambiguous solutions, deliberation processes can influence views and are instrumental in facilitating better informed tree management. • Three main narratives concerning deciding on tree removal on private land were identified before deliberation in both cases. • The study shows how narratives have changed after deliberation. • Before deliberation, narratives focused on where the right to decide on tree felling should reside. • After deliberation, narratives shifted, and a new division emerged on how to organize the decision-making process. • A new method of Q-deliberation was proposed in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rural areas face major challenges in adapting to the impacts of climate change, in particular to floods and droughts. This calls for both adaptation of rural functions and climate-proof and water-resilient design of the rural area, often implying improvement of water retention and flood protection. Implementation of such climate change-related goals in spatial planning often involves adaptations in water management, perhaps even leading to land consolidation. Water management and land consolidation thus form important tools for spatial adaptation. Land consolidation is also a tool to support the integration of other claims that need room, such as agriculture, nature, landscape and tourism functions. This paper investigates the history of and approaches to land consolidation and water management in Poland and the Netherlands, and illustrates the integration of land consolidation and water management to realize a multifunctional climate resilient rural area by two examples in each country. We qualitatively compared the extent to which the planned activities in water retention and flood protection were realized and planned results were achieved for other functions. We found that the two adaptation measures, water retention and flood protection, were more effective in the Netherlands, stemming from ample attention for the impact of climate change and the incorporation of climate change adaptation goals in water policy. Furthermore, the water retention and flood protection measures in the Netherlands better serve multiple functions: agriculture, nature, recreation, landscape and infrastructure. Reasons for this are the multidisciplinary and participatory approach, attention to public awareness and communication and promotion of the process. On the other hand, the Dutch have much to learn from Poland’s vast, undisturbed natural areas, which contribute to a climate resilient landscape. Both Poland and the Netherlands could therefore benefit from bringing together ideas and experiences regarding climate proofing the rural area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cadastral map is a large-scale cartographic record of property ownership that preserves the dimensions and shape of an owned land parcel on the earth surface, but also the spatial relationship of all individual parcels to each other. There are hundreds of thousands of cadastral maps to be found all over the world. Cadastral maps aided land assignment and taxation, presenting statistics essential for territorial administration, or as a symbol of state control over land. The historical land cadastre introduced in the early nineteenth century in the Austrian Empire, was the foundation of many countries' land register systems. One of the areas it covered was Galicia, a southern part of Poland annexed by Austria in the eighteenth century during the Partitions. The study evaluates the use of old Austrian cadastral maps in southern Poland, mainly in matters related to property boundaries. The Austrian Cadastre lost its importance in Poland after the Second World War due to sociopolitical changes. Still, it became a source of data on real property boundaries once again after the 1989 transformation, which restituted and enhanced ownership rights. Today, modern court proceedings on boundary disputes, easement appurtenant decisions, release of property, grant of property title, or usucaption often need to refer to historical legal sources, including the Austrian Cadastre (cadastral maps and land tax registers) to determine ownership boundaries. The paper presents numerous examples of modern uses of historical land cadastre documents, including cadastral maps and land tax registers in land surveying and legal procedures in Poland. The results show that data from the historical land cadastre remain a source of information when determining ownership boundaries despite the time passed. Therefore, the cadastral documentation offers not only historical and research value but also a practical one. • The policy of the communist period led to the erasure of information about boundaries of individual property titles. • In Poland, Austrian cadastral maps are still used in court proceedings to establish property boundaries. • The Austrian cadastre makes it possible to reconstruct the extent of ownership rights to land. • Numerous examples of proceedings demonstrate the utilitarian character of Austrian cadastre documentation. • For years Austrian cadastre documentation was treated only as archival and used for scientific purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Though there is a vibrant debate about the determinants of structural change in the agricultural sector, the broad consensus is that it is mainly driven by economic environment and farmers’ characteristics. In this paper, we show that the pattern of farm exits can also be importantly shaped by rural politics. Using municipality-level data for Poland and the period 1996–2010, we find a persistent correlation between the outflow from farming and the distribution of political power at the local level. Our results suggest that in municipalities where local governments were captured by agricultural interests there were fewer exits from farming and the land consolidation process was slower. While we cannot rule out that some omitted factors might be responsible for the documented statistical association, our findings are robust across different specifications and to focusing attention on various subsamples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Organic farming (OF) is a management system that is closely linked with the quality of the natural environment since it should, besides producing organic food, constitutes a protective factor for all components of that natural environment. Therefore, the objective of this paper was to answer the following question: Does organic farming (OF) protect the natural environment? In order to achieve this goal it was essential to determine what kinds of natural and non-environmental factors have the largest influence on the development of OF in Poland, and to assess the significance of these factors in the spatial diversification of the regional density of organic farms. The analysis was carried out on the basis of data from 2012 comprising 2074 communes, including both rural communes (1563) and urban-rural ones (511). The research results indicated the weaknesses of the organic farming policy (OFP) with respect to the functioning of OF in Poland in the years 2007–2013. The results also show that the development of OF in Poland mainly depends on the system of financial support, i.e. one that either encourages farmers to change the manner of production to a more environmentally friendly one, or one that has an impact on their decision to resign from production using ecological methods. Moreover, as our research has proved, OF is not always developed in places where it should be a priority because of the suitable conditions of the natural environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among the different factors which have an influence on the profitability of small and medium-size farms, a very significant and sometimes even crucial role is played by the unfavourable parameters of land fragmentation (LF). However, this adverse limiting factor can be improved in a relatively short time through land consolidation (LC) treatment. The financial support of these kinds of activities is one of the main aspects of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), which aims to equalise the conditions for farming production. Since accession to the EU in 2004, Poland is one of the biggest beneficiaries of various financially-supported projects oriented to the development of rural area, where LC work takes a special position. This paper sums up the outcomes of the LC work that was undertaken in Poland over the period 2007–2013. The results of the investigation delivered the information about the effectiveness of LC work at the farm level. Also, the efficiency of the existing funding strategy of LC work was evaluated. Additionally, the findings revealed poor effects of land swapping and re-parcelling activities, which is disturbing bearing in mind the financial scale and the amount of time spent conducting these actions. As a remedy, several solutions for improvement of the inefficient LC proceedings were proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent research confirms the growing scale and frequency of land use conflicts. Such conflicts primarily affect rural areas and farmland due to urban expansion or transformations towards multifunctionality. This paper, therefore, aims to identify changes in the scale and structure of farmland use conflicts among the three main competing functions (production, consumption and protection) drawing upon Holmes' conceptualisation of the multifunctional countryside. Unlike other research, based mainly on qualitative case studies, we use Shannon entropy and the administrative courts' database in Poland to analyse farmland use conflicts in a quantitative approach. Our results show the growing dynamics and changing conflict structure observed in time and space but also, to some extent, depending on the composition and configuration of land functions. The findings also prove the importance of (EU, large-scale, nationwide) agricultural and environmental policies in increasing the number of conflict cases. A shift in the conflict line is observed from mainly production-consumption conflicts to conflicts within a single function (production-production) and production-protection conflicts. The changing structure of farmland use conflicts is shaped by the level of development of the production function considered in terms of size and ownership structures as well as its economic performance. In light of this study, land use conflicts, often perceived as socially undesirable, are not necessarily unfavourable, as they manifest a growing capacity to engage in dispute and include weak, forgotten or intentionally excluded actors in the process of building resistance. • The revealed and formalised land use conflicts are approached quantitatively. • Shannon entropy and the administrative courts' database were used. • Composition of land functions determines the dynamics and structure of conflicts. • EU agricultural and conservation policies translate into growing scale of conflicts. • Growing scale of conflicts reflects building of resistance by less capable actors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urban green spaces are a key element of land-use policy. This paper aims to analyse what kind of green spaces, formal and informal, are covered by documents that specify the spatial development policies used by urban policymakers and what types of data are used to develop land-use policies in towns and cities. The background of this analysis is the fundamental staff analysis in the departments of land-use planning. This article presents a quantitative analysis of a survey conducted in the towns and cities of two regions in Poland, broken down into three groups based on population. This division allowed conducting a comparative analysis of data used for land-use policies and formal and informal green spaces as policy components considered by policymakers. The staff of land-use planning departments is the first line to improve the quality of data connected with green areas use. One hundred and thirteen cities and towns took part in the study, constituting 83.7% of the surveyed population. The analysis shows that the main sources used by those who develop land-use policies are the register of land and buildings, geoportals, orthophotomaps, and spatial data from the General Directorate for Environmental Protection collections. Parks are the dominant form of greenery featured in land-use policies. Other forms of green spaces are viewed as less important. The survey shows that what the land-use policy system needs most is a unified definition of green spaces and that it must be a broad definition of green areas, including formal and informal green areas. Introducing this definition will improve urban residents' quality of life following the requirements of sustainable development. • Types of data related to greenery are associated with the size of cities and towns. • Urban authorities often focus on fraction greenery in land-use policy. • Urban green spaces data are the basis of an evidence-based approach to creating land-use policy. • Many open datasets are not used in the land-use planning process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nowadays, trends related to alternative promotion options for small farmers in changing agri-food supply chains stand out. Urban Agriculture (UA) is a multifaceted system ranging from traditional production, processing, distribution, and consumption to a collection of new and less imagined goods and services. UA generally differs from conventional food chains in the origins, the place of production, and the production conditions. This paper focuses on an aspect less addressed by previous research: the analysis of strategic business models adopted by urban farm (UF) practitioners. The work uses a meta-model called Business Model Canvas (BMC), expanding on it with Value Proposition Canvas (VPC) model to explore how they communicate value to target customers and different market segments. Accordingly, in-depth interviews and participant observation were conducted from February 2020 – to February 2021 to gather extensive qualitative information. We selected two European economies in Eastern and Western Europe, Poland and Italy, with different UA relevance and functionality, to better identify potential UF business models. We identified three UF business strategies: service-oriented, product-oriented and land-use-oriented. UFs are gaining traction by impacting beyond financial and economic significance. The new value proposition is a powerful way to create a broader customer base and develop innovative product and service solutions to deliver unique value. It is a development path for UFs and urban agglomerations' sustainable development. This study led to the conceptualization of the cross-cultural business meta-model of UF. It recognizes UFs as distinct entities with diverse functions and value propositions and informs the emergent UA theory and practical applications in UFs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The features of planning in the socialist period are visible in spatial policy. • A particular challenge for recultivation is location in highly urbanised areas. • Large mining excavations are a potential driver in social conflicts. - The initial planning conditions are different from the final ones (decision making) Decision-making on the directions of spatial development are particularly visible in post-mining areas in large cities. This issue is one of the key themes in a discourse that focuses on how to reconcile strategic urban planning and urban policy in post-mining towns, and is based on the concepts of brownfield regeneration and just transition. This paper approaches the issue by taking the redevelopment of the site of a large former stowing sand pit, operated for the needs of coal mining in Sosnowiec near Krakow (southern Poland), as an example. The dilemma concerns turning the former mining area into a new zone for industrial investment or transforming it into a leisure area around a new reservoir. An important part of the study involved obtaining, via a questionnaire survey, the opinions of residents as to their vision for how the former sandpit should be redeveloped. The paper underlines that due to limited social participation in this regard, this is a challenging issue for local urban policy. In post-mining towns, in which sustainable development is particularly important, the changeability of socio-economic phenomena on the one hand and residents' opinions on the other merit special attention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainable transport choices are gaining much attention as they may support the global shift towards reducing the carbon footprint and developing more energy-efficient cities. The relation between urban form and sustainable transport has been discussed by academics and practitioners and there is a consensus that specific parameters of urban form can encourage walking and discourage car use. Following global recommendations on sustainable development, countries take steps towards strengthening pedestrian accessibility by implementing spatial characteristics of walkable neighbourhoods, but also by mobility and urban design strategies. This issue, however, is not properly recognised in countries with short experience in sustainable urban development, such as former socialist countries. In Poland no studies on walkability-related parameters of urban form have been carried out, hence the knowledge in this field is limited. This paper aims to address this gap by providing evidence of a newly built urban district located in Gdansk, Poland. We present the Polish case with three examples of new urban districts from Western Europe, that are designed as sustainable and walkable environments. The methodology is based on the descriptive case study. It includes characteristics of design parameters namely the components of the "walkability index" as well as mobility solutions and urban design guidelines. The results show the current position of Garnizon development in relation to the Western European cases with regard to the existing post-communist legacy and allow for indicating differences and possible shortcomings. Additionally, the study results can be discussed in the context of improving the quality of the housing environment in Poland through pedestrian-oriented development strategies. • Walkable urban neighbourhoods are proven to have numerous benefits in terms of sustainability. • Post-socialist countries have short experience in sustainable development, and creating walkable neighbourhoods. • New housing development from Poland is selected as a case study and compared to three new Western European urban districts. • The parameters of urban form related to walkability are measured and compared and mobility strategies are analysed. • In Poland the implementation of walkability-oriented strategies can be impeded due to flaws in the planning system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The observed urban growth leads to rapid changes in landscape and environment, increase of demands on sources, education and social services, etc. causing both positive results as well as considerable threats. In the era of modern technology development, including the commonness of GIS tools, obtaining geospatial data sets and their visualisation become easier. Their application allow for quick and advanced analyses of the current needs and prediction of the future ones. The present article discusses the problem of spatial accessibility of educational services in the city. This issue is very important from the perspective of the changes that took place along with the educational reform and the absence of urban planning regulations pertaining to the location of primary schools within a residential unit. Using 6 parameters and 3 indicators, as well as the example of the network of primary schools in the district of Bemowo, Warsaw the Authors of the paper showed the positive and negative features of spatial accessibility of those facilities and proposed methodology for analysis of spatial accessibility of educational services which was validated with Huff's theory. The aim of the study was to obtain maps of the accessibility of educational institutions and to identify on their basis the areas that are educationally excluded. A Huff's relative gravity model was developed for the school sites, and the probability of the area of influence from each school was determined. Locations where the location of schools does not meet the demand of residents were identified. At the same time, they demonstrated the usefulness of GIS tools for geospatial analyses in terms of meeting the residents' needs. • The proper arrangement of space, including adequate provision of services, is a vital matter in sustainable development. • The application of GIS tools allows for quick and advanced analyses of current needs and prediction of the future ones. • Analyses of spatial accessibility of services are valid in view of changes caused by reforms and urban planning rules. • The spatial accessibility was analyzed, and a methodology for the procedure was proposed, then validated with Huff's theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents real estate management as a system and specifies all its constituent parts. It contains a comparison of good governance principles and chosen procedures as well as their execution in different countries. The analysed systems were divided into two groups by cluster analysis. Afterwards, an analysis of the management systems in the chosen countries was performed. On the basis of the above analysis, the condition of the Polish public real estate management system was characterised in comparison to the other systems. Some changes in the system were suggested in line with the good governance concept (openness, participation, accountability, effectiveness, coherence). In order to implement these modifications, the existing law concerning this subject should be adapted or changed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Land administration in different countries is carried out through various institutions or agencies. There are two institutions in Poland that perform these activities. They are cadastre and land registry. Cadastre scope concerns mostly spatial information, whereas land registry does generally the legal one. The Polish cadastral model is defined within sixteen diagrams and applying Unified Modelling Language (UML) notation. It results in fact, that it is possible to be understood by only small number of professionals. The construction of Polish cadastral profile based on ISO 19152 “Geographic Information – Land Administration Domain Model (LADM)” application was described in the paper. The resulting profile presents the main relationships within the Polish cadastral system. Since the profile is simpler in perception than the original cadastral model, it can be used by the wider public, and is therefore more beneficial for improving land administration in Poland. It can also help to reduce data redundancy and may facilitate cadastral data transfer and exchange between different countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the possibility of forest policy changes in Poland. The main objective is to investigate whether, and to whom, the society would be willing to pay for providing biodiversity enhancement in private forests. The empirical evidence is derived from a stated preference survey conducted on the national level and analyzed using a multinomial logit model (MNL). Our findings show a rather strong potential for the implementation of payments for ecosystem services (PES) in private forests, even though historical and institutional conditions are not favorable. The results also indicate a significant role of environmental attitudes in viewing the national and local governments as those responsible for financing the implementation of changes in private forests. They allow to provide recommendations for planning authorities and decision-makers not only in Poland but also in the other Central and Eastern European countries, where payments for ecosystem services have no long tradition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urban agriculture is the collective name for a wide variety of farming activities that occur within a city's boundaries or direct sphere of influence. A shared feature of urban agriculture types is that they are spatially limited,. Farming is generally not the primary function in the urban ecosystem; however, its spatial role should not be underestimated. Urban green spaces connected with urban agriculture are widely accepted as a nature-based solution for effectively addressing societal challenges related to urbanization. Competition for land between agricultural and urban land use is addressed mostly by regulatory command-and-control planning approaches. However, there is growing interest in the use of market-based instruments. Agricultural subsidies and legal protection against agricultural land conversion are primarily oriented towards rural areas, so the research regarding market-based instruments for agricultural land uses in cities is undeveloped. In Polish cities, urban agricultural areas comprise about 43.5 % of total urban area, and 7.8 % of individual farms in Poland are urban farms. The specific attitude towards ownership of land in Poland (a strong private-property ideology) influences (restricts) the implementation of market-based instruments. The article aims to present the potential for market-based instruments for urban agriculture and to identify barriers to the implementation of such solutions. The paper analyzes theoretical frameworks and practices for protecting agricultural land use through market-based instruments in Poland. We focus on two types of market-based instruments for ecosystem services of urban agriculture. The first encompasses the existing tools in Polish law and policy. We identified the following market-based instruments protecting urban agriculture: (1) charges and annual fees for excluding land from agricultural production, aimed at preventing agricultural land conversion in cities; and (2) land leasing charge of allotment gardens. We assess those instruments, their strengths and weaknesses and their effectiveness in protecting agricultural land use in cities. The second type are market-based instruments supporting urban agriculture cities that have potential for future implementation, We consider voluntary land readjustment and development agreement (currently very limited) to be the most promising and implementable. In this regard, we formulate de lege ferenda conclusions and recommendations. • New perspectives for perceiving urban agriculture of land-use system in cities. • Market-based instruments can be supportive or protective towards ecosystem services. • Market-based instruments can protect urban agriculture against land-use change. • Not all market-based instruments are suitable for urban agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social housing management across Europe is evolving towards a more market-oriented approach in response to the progressing decentralization of public services and privatization of public housing. In Poland, these trends are particularly related to changes in the organization of municipal housing stock management. One recommended option for such changes has become the evolution from an indirect system based on municipal units into a contracting system based on private entities. This paper presents the organizational model of municipal housing stock management in Poland in the contracting system. The model was designed as an organizational management standard for a typical urban municipality. The model was developed by integrating theoretical solutions and the results of empirical research conducted in Polish cities in view of the key organizational principles. The methodology for developing the model was based on the diagnostic-functional approach to designing organizational systems with the use of the Hijmans competence tables technique. This model strives to enhance the quality and efficiency of municipal housing management services by improving their organization in line with the New Public Management concept. The proposed model could be of interest to other countries where the management of social housing is subjected to restructuring and privatization pressure. • In many countries, municipal housing stock is managed directly by local government organizations. • The privatization of municipal housing and market changes require the restructuring of municipal housing stock management. • The transition into a contracting housing management system creates the need for an appropriate organizational model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Despite the emphasis given in the EU''s Common Agricultural Policy to the local economic benefits of a maintaining a strong agricultural sector, relatively little research has focused on the interactions between farm households and their local economies. The paper presents findings from an analysis of the direct economic transactions of farm households drawn from two EU case study areas, one a transition economy with an underdeveloped agricultural sector (Podlaskie, Poland), the other a mature economy with a highly developed agricultural sector (North East Scotland, UK). The results confirm that the contribution of farm households to their immediate surrounding locality is highly context-specific and depends upon both demand and supply-side factors. With the exception of off-farm work, farm households within North East Scotland study have more distant and spatially concentrated agricultural transactions due to the consolidation of upstream and downstream agri-businesses in the region. In contrast, transactions in Podlaskie take place far closer to the farm holding and are more spatially dispersed. The rural development and policy implications of the findings are discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The designation of the concept of cultural landscape to a particular region is often taken in isolation of those who live and work there. Yet, at the same time, this designation has profound influences upon where they can live and the availability of suitable employment, whilst attracting into the area many who desire to ‘buy into’ that landscape. There is often an extreme contrast between housing that is affordable to the local community and housing that can be purchased by those who have access to the higher levels of finance. This frequently generates conflict between those who have historically lived in the area and those who have recently moved into the area attracted by the cultural landscape. This paper examines the contrasting situations, rules and regulations that exist in Poland and England, by taking as examples the designated cultural landscape of Wiśniowa together with the peri-urban landscape of Michałowice, both in Southern Poland, and the Lake District National Park of England. In so doing, it will compare and contrast the pragmatic, locally orientated spatial planning policies of Poland, with those of the regulated (although discretionary), top-down, planning policies of England and their implications upon the concept of spatial landscape management through land use controls. Finally, consequences of these two different approaches will be evaluated in terms of the social and economic development of the respective regions with particular emphasis placed upon provision, or lack of, policies leading to a reduction in conflict. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The research aim has been to demonstrate the current state of Poland''s agricultural land market and offered perspectives on changes to the market. The agricultural land market in Poland is divided in two parts: privately owned farms and land owned by the State Treasury. This paper presents the results of a questionnaire distributed in 2008 among 943 owners and/or leaseholders of agricultural land located in all regions of Poland. According to empirical studies, private and family farm ownership is dominant in Poland, and land is most often acquired due to inheritance – 84.84% of surveyed farmers benefited from a land grant, which was mainly given by their parents or parents-in-law (78.90%). In addition, 80.34% declared that they will pass their land to their children or grandchildren. Notably, almost 100% of farmers reported having children or grandchildren. The motives presented by leaseholders and agricultural land buyers can be divided in three categories: (1) the desire to expand owned farmland or establish a new farm; (2) an investment on the expected price increase of agricultural land; and (3) to receive benefits from EU funds (i.e., a direct subsidy payment, a subsidy to less favoured areas, production, establishing new farm, activities in the frames of Sectoral Operational Programme). Moreover, leaseholders indicated that the pre-emption right for leased land was very important to them, as 81.75% leaseholders declared the intention to use this right. According to Agricultural Property Agency (APA) statistics, 57.52% farmers bought land from the APA before it was offered to the public. The agricultural land market in Poland after 1989 has been shaped by various factors. These include: [-] historically based attitudes toward land and its cultural and symbolic value; [-] a socialist heritage (although even during socialism in Poland, private ownership was widespread in agriculture); [-] a regard for land as a multifunctional good (e.g. production factor, natural good, public good); [-] citizens’ and in particular farmers’ attitude toward land ownership and agricultural leasing; [-] changes in agriculture and ownership rights to improve the efficiency of land management; [-] integration with the EU and joining the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP); and [-] the possibility of obtaining various rents (i.e. economic, land, quality, total, planning, localisation, agricultural, mining, building, rural, capital, EU support, and changing the purpose of the land) (Marks-Bielska, 2010, 7). State policy in the field of spatial management needs further elaboration and should address a complex system that encompasses both land used for agriculture and land use for other purposes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

There is a widespread belief that the initial period of running an economic entity can be critical, due to the limited experience of a new entrepreneur and as a result of the shortage of resources for the development of a family business. Until now, there have been no studies of changes in farms in the short term resulting from intergenerational succession, i.e. transfers of farms. This paper fills that gap. Using the methods of counterfactual modelling and the panel data representative for Polish commercial farms, the study attempts to answer the question of whether and to what extent the positive, negative or neutral economic effects of the intergenerational transfer have been observed in the farms surveyed. The analyses showed that, on average, family succession did not translate into a reduction of production potential of the farms analysed and did not cause a deterioration in their economic performance. The results of counterfactual modelling showed that the improved economic situation of farms with succession had not directly resulted from successions, since the similar processes were noted in the control units. The findings have important implications for the EU CAP, especially for the instruments aimed at generational renewal of agriculture. • The study contributes to the debate of a young farmer problem by analysing the short-term economic changes on the transferred family farms. • Using the inverse probability of treatment weighting method based on a counterfactual approach, the study explores the successor effects in farms. • The results showed that the improved economic situation of farms with succession had not directly resulted from successions. • The results have important implications for the EU CAP, especially for the instruments aimed at generational renewal of agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main objective of this study is to develop a method of identifying compact urban areas, which are characterized by a fully developed functional and spatial structure. Identification of such areas is a necessary element in studying the conditions and directions of spatial development in Poland. Moreover, the analysis of a development's compactness and the availability of basic functions is a part of the model of urban policy promoting the concept of the compact city: well known in the world and only now being implemented in Poland. This paper uses GIS technology and the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to propose a set of measurable criteria for the compactness of urban structures. Spatial analyses were performed considering the accessibility of selected objects and functions, the result of which is a series of maps presenting the categorization of the study area in terms of the level of development of a compact functional and spatial structure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Land fragmentation is a primary cause of low agricultural profitability in many regions of the world. Adverse fragmentation parameters can be improved with land consolidation projects. Such projects are undertaken in areas characterised by different initial parameters of land fragmentation, types of agriculture, sociocultural conditions, and legislation that provides the framework for their formal and procedural implementation. All these aspects should affect not only the effectiveness of the projects but also how they are evaluated depending on the local circumstances. The paper presents results of the assessment of identified differences in land consolidation project effectiveness in the context of legal and sociocultural conditions. The research involved eight land consolidation projects carried out in Poland and Turkey. The countries have similar structures of agriculture and are conducting ongoing, long-term land consolidation schemes. The results are indicative of the necessity to differentiate assessment criteria depending on the location of a project and its primary goal. The application of popular land fragmentation indices could, in particular, lead to incorrect assessment of whether a project was successful when it was not intended to result in a significant increase in parcel area and reduction of the number of parcels. The research shows that it is possible to compare the effectiveness of projects from different countries provided that the process takes into consideration differences in local conditions affecting the development of agriculture and legislation. • The analysis involved eight completed land consolidation projects in Poland and Turkey. • The assessment was based on land fragmentation, density variation, road network elongation indices and parcel shape changes. • Project effectiveness can be compared only in a homogeneous group of projects. • Project assessment criteria should be selected according to the primary project goal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Literature concerned with Natura 2000 highlights that conflicts emerged when local communities felt the implementation of the policy was unfair. In the paper, we extend those arguments and say that the contested nature of Natura 2000 conflicts is best understood through a framework of environmental justice that embraces the importance of empowering residents and communities in Natura 2000 processes. We draw from Nancy Fraser's critical approach that organizes justice issues within distribution, recognition and representation domains simultaneously. It enables us to look at the Natura 2000 conservation conflicts from a critical standpoint of local communities. With it, we conceptualize the role of resident empowerment to compliment examinations of environmental policy conflicts. To re-construct the case of Natura 2000 conservation conflicts through the lens of pluralistic environmental justice perspective, we revisit processes in which a sense of (in)justice about Natura 2000 policy nourished conservation conflicts in Poland. • Pluralistic framework of environmental justice that draws upon Nancy Fraser's critical approach to frame conservation conflicts. • The justice framework organizes N2000 conflicts in terms of whose visions are recognized, who gets to participate in decision-making, and what kind of values mattered. • Empowerment as a glue-like element for just Natura 2000 policy within distribution, recognition and representation domains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Existing literature on the subject of smart village provides no scientific studies regarding the direct dependency of the scope of smart village solutions on the agrarian structure of a given area. In this article, the authors state a thesis that agrarian structure should be one of the main factors of analysis in the decision-making process within smart rural development projects, including smart villages projects. The study aims to define the most crucial spatial patterns for analyses from the point of view of possibilities of implementation of solutions aimed at smart local development of rural areas within the smart villages projects based on the case study of the Mazowieckie Voivodeship in Poland. In the paper we define parameters for spatial analyses that allow to determine possible directions of development and select following areas: (i) predestined to the development of agricultural retail trade and direct sale, (ii) predisposed to introduction of precise agriculture, (iii) predisposed to development of systems permitting production and sale of solar energy to the electricity network, (iv) predisposed to development of systems permitting heating of water and houses from renewable energy sources, (v) predisposed to development of ecological agriculture and traditional food production, (vi) weakly developed and peripheral areas that require the support of development processes or areas with particularly unfavourable spatial structure of land and farms prioritised for land consolidation procedures, (vii) under the influence of large urban centre that are participating in development processes. The study proved that agrarian and spatial structure can considerably affect the possibilities of smart development of a given area. • The agrarian structure in the Mazowieckie Voivodeship show high spatial variability. • Unfavourable agrarian structure inhibits smart development. • Spatial structure of farms permits forecasting potential directions for smart village projects. • Methodology of spatial patterns analyses to identify rural potential was provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Novel universal methodology of spatio-temporal comparison of stability of spatial data-driven clusters. • Integrates spatial econometrics, spatial statistics and unsupervised learning. • K-means clusters of GWR model coefficients are rasterised and the mode cluster id labels given raster cell, Rand index and Jaccard Similarity test if pairs of pairs of raster cells belong to the same clusters in both periods. • Clusters of GWR coefficients indicate spatio-temoral stability of submarkets, while clusters of standard errors of GWR coefficients detect stability of local spatial heteroscedasticity. • Methodology can be applied to any spatial phenomena, including housing submarkets. This paper fills the gap in rich housing literature by testing the spatio-temporal stability of real estate submarkets. We start with standard Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) estimation of the hedonic model on point data, and we cluster model coefficients to detect housing submarkets. We check spatio-temporal stability - we add novelty by comparing if clusters move over space or stay in the same place. We rasterise surface and apply the Rand Index and Jaccard Similarity to check if clusters assigned to raster cells yield stable spatial structure. This approach allows for quantitative assessments of how much determinants of price are stable over time and space. The same mechanism applied to standard errors of GWR coefficients is a good test of the spatio-temporal stability of local heteroscedasticity. A Case study of apartments' transactions in Warsaw-Poland for the 2006–2015 period, evidences relatively high spatio-temporal stability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The work investigated the effectiveness of projects carried out from 2007 to 2013 under a consolidation programme in Poland. • The assessment involved effects related to the change of size, shape and value of parcels and improving cadastral data. • The payback period for the investigated group of land consolidation projects was between 9–134 years. • It is necessary to develop methods for evaluating economic impact of non-economic effects of the LC projects. Land consolidation projects (LCP) are the most effective method for quick amendment of poor land fragmentation parameters. At the same time, they are costly due to both a long time horizon and auxiliary projects, in particular, road construction and improvement of field drainage or irrigation systems. The range of changes in parcel arrangement after consolidation varies, as does the economic efficiency of LCPs related to the changes. The paper proposes a approach to the assessment of LCPs that takes into account the production and income effects, which influence the income of farmers participating in consolidation processes, and potential benefits, such as the increased value of farmland and the effect of improved quality of cadastral documentation. Static and dynamic economic feasibility indices were calculated. In the latter case, a thirty-year life of the project and a 2.5 % discount rate were assumed. The study involved six projects completed in Poland under the European Union Rural Development Programme 2007–2013. The effectiveness of the investments was found to vary significantly. The calculated payback period was most often a few to several dozen years, depending on the project, index, and scope of considered effects. It has been demonstrated that if potential economic rents are included, the estimated payback period for an LCP can be reduced several times. It was further concluded that it is necessary to develop a method for the valuation of non-production effects of LCPs such as social, environmental, and landscape benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Activity depend on the agrarian structure. • No link with the level of commune development. • Authonomy of agriculture development. This paper identifies the relationship between an active use of EU investment support programs by Polish farmers, on one side, and the local conditions for socioeconomic development and natural and structural characteristics of agriculture, on the other. The research was illustrated by the example of Poland, a country with a remarkably fragmented and territorially heterogeneous agrarian structure. This study was carried out at commune level, and used a series of variables to describe the socioeconomic development levels of communes, natural conditions for farming and the agrarian structure. These characteristics were compared with the farmers' activity in accessing EU funds allocated to farm modernization. The Hellwig's synthetic development indicator was used to represent complex phenomena. A strong relationship was found to exist between the implementation of co-financed investments and the agrarian structure at local level. Other factors proved to be insignificant. This suggests that the agricultural development path is somewhat independent from socioeconomic and environmental conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The paper aims to assess the adoption of willow within a stylised CAP greening. • Proactive greening mechanisms enabling wide diffusion of willow are tested for Poland. • Small and mid-sized farm groups are the most sensitive to willow plantation. • Willow uptake is also high within livestock-oriented farm groups. • Willow is likely to be most grown in Mazowsze & Podlasie region. Synergies between the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and the deployment of bioeconomy that induces resource-efficient and sustainable biomass production patterns are in the core of discussion for the new CAP in Poland. Proactive greening mechanisms likely to enable a large-scale diffusion of willow plantation are investigated in this respect, including diversification schemes combined with incentives making willow plantation more attractive to farmers. A comprehensive approach to modelling farm diversification options is therefore provided by means of an integrated bioeconomic framework which relies on linking the agricultural supply model AROPAj with the crop model STICS. The economic and environmental impacts related to the gross margin, land use change, nitrogen (N) fertiliser use, and greenhouse gas emissions, i.e. methane (CH 4) and nitrous oxide (N 2 O), are assessed at the regional scale according to the type of farming and the economic size. Under current crop diversification conditions only 9% of farm groups (FG) may opt for willow, benefiting solely from diversification support whereas subsidising willow increases this percentage up to 20% and 45%, for a received allocation amount equal to € 100 ha − 1 and € 200 ha − 1 , respectively. The uptake of willow is particularly high within small and middle-sized FG and within those specialising in grazing activities. Regarding the environmental impacts, the higher the number of required crops, the lower the N-fertiliser use, and in most cases, a coupled support policy (when willow plantation is subsidised) further reduces N-use, and consequently N 2 O emissions. Unlike grazing-oriented FG, crop-oriented FG tend to significantly increase their CH 4 emissions due to the intensification of grazing activities. The countrywide coverage of the findings and their economic and spatial detail can support informed policies for sustainable bio-based activities development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We present, for the first time, a comprehensive assessment of NBS policy needs co-produced with stakeholders involved in NBS delivery across three EU cities. • We propose a conceptual framework of NBS policy needs that extends knowledge gaps to encompass NBS operationalisation in cities. • For implementing NBS in cities, systems thinking and solutions-oriented thinking are essential knowledge needs. • Negotiation and collaboration are paramount for bridging departmental silos and for co-designing NBS in cities. To advance the science and practice of implementing nature-based solutions in cities, it is important to examine the obstacles and provide means to overcome them. This paper presents a conceptual framework of policy needs for analysing the science of nature-based solutions' implementation and connect it to the practice of their implementation that advances the literature by connecting well-researched gaps to a more innovative action-oriented policy development approach that we argue is required for embedding scaled-up nature-based solutions. We conceptualise and ground the policy needs framework of skills, knowledge and partnerships theoretically in current literature of NBS policy and planning and empirically in three European case study cities: Genk in Belgium, Glasgow in UK and Poznan in Poland. The cross-case study analysis points to the knowledge needs of systems' thinking and solutions-oriented thinking as paramount for implementing nature-based solutions. Our analysis further points to the skills' needs of negotiation and collaboration for administrative silo bridging and for forging multi-sectoral partnerships essential for planning, and co-managing NBS. We conclude with three ways forward to addressing the policy needs for implementation: first, cities can invest in tailored and targeted capacity building programs, second, institutional spaces need to be established that allow for collaborative learning through and for partnerships and third, cities need to chart governance innovations that promote evidence-based policy for nature-based solutions' design and implementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Spatial diversity of soils requires detailed spatial analysis. • The quality of soil is one of the most significant factors having a real impact on the potential level of agricultural crops. • Familiarity with spatial variability of soil quality classes in respective voivodeships has an impact on planning the development of agricultural areas and effective allocation of money to rural spatial restructuring. The quality of soil is one of the most significant factors having a real impact on the potential level of agricultural crops. Therefore, it is a significant element shaping the profitability of agricultural production in the specific area. Familiarity with spatial variability of soil quality classes in respective voivodeships has an impact on planning the development of agricultural areas and effective allocation of money to rural spatial restructuring. This element also provides important information in the process of consolidation works programming which takes place at the regional government level. This data is characterised by very long usability due to a small number of changes referring to classification of land entered into the land and building survey. Data on the quality and suitability of soil in the analysed area was acquired from the analysis of data from the land and building survey. Analyses were carried out in 3 poviats of Lublin voivodeship located in the eastern part of Poland covering an area of 501 132.9 ha, split into 610,160 plots. This paper presents an algorithm designed by the author for identifying areas in which land consolidation works should be performed, including its practical application using the adopted sample. The algorithm identifies areas characterised by the highest soil quality, which makes it possible to indicate areas where land consolidation work should first be undertaken. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• In many countries, municipal housing stock is managed directly by local government organizations. • The privatization of municipal housing and legal changes require the restructuring of municipal housing stock management. • The required restructuring efforts include the modification of the model of financial flows in municipal housing stock. The privatization of public housing in Poland has contributed to the rise of a hybrid municipal housing management system where financial operations are carried out in both public and private finance sectors. The paper identifies and analyzes the existing model of financial flows in municipal housing stock management in Poland and proposes a modification to improve the quality and efficiency of these services. The existing model was developed using a multi-stage top-down research methodology combining various descriptive, explanatory and analytical methods. The model presents the standardized structure and mechanisms of financial flows in municipal housing stock management in a synthetic, consistent and universal approach. It provides a platform for detailed research aiming to improve the analyzed management processes, and it can be deployed to perform analytical, diagnostic and normative functions as a tool for promoting good management practices. The existing model was modified based on the results of an empirical analysis. The modified model proposes a general framework for the financial transformation of municipal housing management systems in Poland in line with the New Public Management concept. The identified models could be of interest to other countries where social housing management leans towards the narrower property-based approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The biggest changes in the shore zone of lakes were the decline of agriculture, expansion of settlement and afforestation. • The main threat to the shore zone of the lakes seems to be the uncontrolled expansion of settlements, including second homes. • A functional conflict between the settlement and tourism functions of the land in the lake shore zone was noted. Changes in land use and land cover (LU/LC) are one of the main contributors to global change. The fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989 resulted in massive socio-economic and institutional transformations that triggered changes in the LU/LC. The paper analyses the processes of land use/cover change in the shore zone of 145 lakes of the Olsztyn Lakeland in north-eastern Poland based on GIS data sets over a period of 30 years. This is a new approach aimed at analysing qualitative, quantitative and spatial changes in the shore zone of lakes related to socio-economic transformation in Poland. A very large decrease in agricultural land area was noted, which is currently an economically marginal class of land use in the shore zone of lakes. The decrease in the agricultural land area was related to a significant increase in the residential construction development and the process of afforestation. While the conversion of agricultural land was a positive phenomenon from the environmental point of view, the main threat to the shore zone of lakes was the expansion of settlement. Our results also showed a negative correlation between the surface of urban areas and the surface occupied by tourist accommodation facilities. This fact indicates a cross functional conflict between the settlement and tourism functions of the area in the lake shore zone. The results also indicate that the changes in the tourist accommodation base were mainly of a qualitative and spatial nature. This is probably due to a change in tourist preferences in terms of accommodation standards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]