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Rio Cauca caecilians (Typhlonectes natans) are a unique, fully aquatic species of amphibian from the order Gymnophiona. They are housed in several zoological institutions and aquaria with limited information available regarding health and disease. This retrospective study evaluates common pathologic findings and causes of mortality of Rio Cauca caecilians from three different institutions over a 22-y period. Comparisons to previous medical health surveys were conducted with evaluation according to age class and sex to determine whether the primary causes of mortality and common histologic findings have remained similar over time and between institutions. Between 1997 and 2019, the 62 mortalities included males (15/62; 24.2%), females (26/62; 41.9%), and undetermined sex (21/62; 33.9%). The majority of examined individuals were adult (38/62; 61.3%), followed by juveniles (13/62; 21.0%), neonates (9/62; 14.5%), and undetermined age class (2/62; 3.2%). Thirteen (21.0%) individuals were euthanatized. Adult females (16/62; 25.48%) represented the largest group. In adults, the most common lesion and contributor to death was renal disease (28/38; 73.7%) followed by skin disease (16/38; 42.1%), including oomycete dermatitis (8/38; 21.1%) from Saprolegnia sp. Other common findings included bacterial dermatitis, gastrointestinal nematodiasis, and adrenal hyperplasia. This retrospective study will provide a useful reference to help guide veterinary care, management decisions, and collection management planning for this caecilian species in managed care.

Acute-phase proteins (APP) are the foundation to the innate immune response and valuable biomarkers that increase with inflammation, infection, neoplasia, stress, and trauma.2,4,16 Little is known about the acute-phase response in cetaceans and if these proteins can be used for health monitoring in individuals and free-ranging populations. The purpose of this study was to characterize serum concentrations of haptoglobin (Hp) and serum amyloid A (SAA), as well as electrophoretic profiles of common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in free-ranging (n = 33) and professional care (n = 27) settings. Results were correlated to commonly utilized inflammatory indices including erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), fibrinogen, total white blood cell count (WBC), and absolute neutrophil count. SAA levels, measured with a dolphin-specific enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), were significantly higher (P = 0.05) in free-ranging dolphins (mean = 4.26; SE = 1.12) when compared with those under professional care (mean = 1.82; SE = 0.45). For dolphins under professional care, a statistically significant correlation was identified between ESR and Hp (P < 0.001; r = 0.69), ESR and SAA (P < 0.001; r = 0.67), fibrinogen and Hp (P = 0.001; r = 0.58), and fibrinogen and SAA (P = 0.002; r = 0.56). In addition, there was a significant correlation between WBC and SAA (P = 0.01; r = 0.38) and absolute neutrophil count and SAA (P = 0.04; r = 0.32). There were no significant correlations between study variables observed in free-ranging dolphins. The variable correlation of APPs with commonly utilized inflammatory indices demonstrates that these proteins are independent measures of inflammation with unique sensitivity, specificity, and timeline of expression. The results of this study contribute to improved health monitoring of dolphins and have the potential to assist in identification of compromised health.

An 8-yr-old male golden lion tamarin ( Leontopithecus rosalia ) was diagnosed with diabetes mellitus based on hyperglycemia and persistent glycosuria. Initial treatment consisted of the oral antihyperglycemic medications glipizide and metformin that resulted in decreased blood glucose concentrations; however, marked glycosuria persisted. Insufficient improvement on oral antihyperglycemic therapy and poor feasibility of daily subcutaneous insulin therapy led to an investigation into an alternative therapy with extended-release exenatide, a glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) mimetic, at a dosage of 0.13 mg/kg subcutaneously once per month. Following treatment with exenatide, the persistent glycosuria resolved, the animal maintained normal blood glucose concentrations, and had lower serum fructosamine concentrations compared to pretreatment levels. Based on these findings, extended-release exenatide could be considered as a therapeutic option in nonhuman primates with diabetes mellitus that do not respond to oral antihyperglycemics and in which daily subcutaneous insulin is not feasible.

Myelolipomas are mesenchymal tumors composed of adipose and hematopoietic tissue. They have been reported in many species, including domestic dogs and cats, birds, mustelids, wild felids, and nonhuman primates. Myelolipomas in Callitrichidae have been reported at postmortem examination and rarely antemortem. Multiple cases of hepatic myelolipomas associated with morbidity in Chicago Zoological Society's collection of Goeldi's monkeys (Callimico goeldii) prompted a global retrospective study to determine the prevalence and investigate factors associated with this condition. A total of 842 postmortem examination reports (1965-2013) collected from 133 captive collections were reviewed. Myelolipomas were reported in 17.2% (n=145) of animals, with significantly more female cases than male (P=0.023). There was a significantly older mean age at death in affected animals (134 months) compared to unaffected animals (79 months) (P0.0001). Myelolipomas were diagnosed in the liver in all affected animals, and rarely in the adrenal or spleen. One in five (22.1%) affected Callimico had notable morbidity associated with this disease, which is markedly different from the primarily benign reports in other species. To identify disease, prevent morbidity from hepatic myelolipoma, and improve care of Callimico species in zoological collections, new Species Survival Plan (SSP) medical management recommendations include incorporating abdominal ultrasonographic examination during routine physical examinations in addition to previously recommended hematological and serum biochemical evaluations. Future studies are merited to examine the prevalence, risk factors, health effects, and treatment options of myelolipoma in living collections.

Assessment of pododermatitis, osteoarthritis, and other causes of lameness in penguins can be challenging. Subjective gait analysis using visual observation and response to analgesic therapy can be affected by observer variation and caregiver placebo bias. A pressure-sensitive walkway (PSW), however, allows for objective gait analysis and assessment of analgesic therapeutic response. In this study, a 3-m-long PSW was used to analyze gait in 21 adult Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti). Medical record reviews and comprehensive examinations were performed on all penguins; five penguins were considered abnormal, with either right-sided (n = 3) or bilateral historical lameness-causing disease (n = 2) and were analyzed separately from the normal data set. All penguins walked across the PSW four times and gait parameters (step and stride distances and velocities, maximum force, impulse, and peak pressure) were calculated for each foot in each penguin. Statistical comparisons were made between right and left feet, sexes, and normal and abnormal penguins for each gait parameter. Among normal penguins, there were no significant differences between feet or sex. Left step width was shorter in abnormal penguins than that of normal penguins. Study results established baseline values for Humboldt penguins. This will allow objective monitoring of progression and response to therapy in penguin lameness cases, both current and future. The data also provide a foundation to compare gait parameters with other penguin populations and species.

There are no studies to date on the normal reproductive physiology of African white-bellied pangolins (Phataginus tricuspis). As a reclusive species, little is known about normal gestation, successful parturition, and potential complications during pregnancy. Ten female P. tricuspis were diagnosed as pregnant and monitored under professional care. Five developed complications during pregnancies or during parturition and are detailed in this case series. Dystocia occurred in two dams each, with malposition of a singleton fetus. Both dams were successfully treated with surgical intervention by caesarian section. Of the two individuals, one fetus was nonviable, but the other neonate survived and was reared by the dam to weaning. A third pregnant female died during pregnancy from septicemia resulting in death of the preterm fetus. The two additional dams of the five gave birth to full-term neonates. One fetus was stillborn with evidence of fetal distress, and the other died immediately after birth (perinatal death) with undetermined etiology. Based on this case series, complications associated with pregnancy occur in P. tricuspis, indicating the need for further study and close monitoring during impending parturition.

A neonate male addax calf displayed an inability to extend its forelimbs bilaterally (range of motion restricted to 45 degrees-50 degrees on full extension) with resultant inability to stand. Based on examination and radiographs, the congenital defect was attributed to contracted soft tissue structures (joint capsule and/or intercarpal ligaments). Splinting, support of the limbs, and physical therapy resulted in moderate improvement of the angle of contraction (full flexion to approximately 120 degrees on extension at day 10). The animal was able to walk with splints but died at 10 days from acute head trauma, presumably related to a traumatic fall caused by challenges with ambulation. Postmortem examination confirmed soft-tissue contracture of the forelimbs. Malposition of the calf in utero was considered a possible cause of the defect.

An ultrasonographic reproductive health examination of a 26-yr-old female African elephant (Loxodonta africana) revealed bilateral ureteral wall thickening and dilatation. On ultrasonographic examination, the bladder and both ureters were normal near the trigone; however, the cranial-most aspect of each ureter was dilated and thickened for a length of 30-50 cm. The same month, elevated blood creatinine (3.0 mg/dl), and urine protein-creatinine ratio (4.0) were observed. Chronic renal failure was diagnosed based on these abnormalities, and the persistent ureteral dilatation was seen on subsequent ultrasound examinations. Complete blood cell counts, serum chemistries, and urinalyses remained relatively unchanged until 24 mo after diagnosis, at which time azotemia, hypophosphatemia, and hypercalcemia (including elevated ionized calcium) developed. Hydronephrosis of both kidneys and prominent sacculation of the left ureter were noted on ultrasonographic examination. Lethargy, ventral edema, and oral mucosal ulceration acutely developed 30 mo after diagnosis. Although blood urea nitrogen remained elevated, creatinine, total calcium, and ionized calcium returned to within reference ranges at that time. Due to rapid clinical decline and grave prognosis, humane euthanasia was elected. Bilateral ureteral dilatation, dysplasia of the right kidney, and chronic nephritis of the left kidney were identified postmortem.

This report describes weekly repeated anesthesia in a 7-yr-old, 1,030 kg, female Eastern black rhinoceros ( Diceros bicornis michaeli), that was immobilized six times using a combination of 2 mg etorphine (0.002 mg/kg), 5 mg medetomidine (0.005 mg/kg), 25 mg midazolam (0.024 mg/kg), and 300 mg ketamine (0.29 mg/kg) delivered intramuscularly (IM) via remote dart to facilitate long-term medical care of a bilateral, obstructive Actinomyces sp. rhinitis. The drug combination described in this study resulted in reliable, rapid recumbency of the animal within 2-8 min after initial administration via dart and produced deep anesthesia for 34-78 min without supplemental anesthetic administration. Antagonist drugs (100 mg naltrexone [0.1 mg/kg] and 25 mg atipamezole [0.024 mg/kg] IM) produced reliable and uneventful recoveries in all the procedures. During each anesthetic procedure, the animal was intubated and provided intermittent positive pressure ventilation with a megavertebrate demand ventilator. Tachycardia and hypoxia noted after induction resolved after positive pressure ventilation with oxygen. This report provides useful information on a novel anesthetic protocol used repeatedly for intensive medical management in a black rhinoceros.