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The efficacy of a new smoke-generating formulation (fumigant, MidMos Solutions Ltd., GB), containing the active ingredients permethrin and deltamethrin, was evaluated against adult sand flies in an apartment (280 m(3)), a semi-open large animal shelter (enclosing an area of 300 m(2)), a closed Bedouin animal tent (104 m(3)), and a garden (141 m(2)) enclosed by a stone wall. In each location, four cages with approx. 100 Phlebotomus papatasi were exposed to the fumigant 0.5 m and 2.0 m above ground for 15 and 60 min. Controls were kept in untreated similar rooms and there were two repetitions. In the apartment and the animal tent, a single cartridge caused 100% mortality within 15 min. In the large animal shelter, one fumigant caused mortality of 86% in the lower cages and 75% in the upper cages after 15 min. After 60 min, mortality was 94 and 87%, respectively. With two fumigants, mortality was 98.5 and 91% after 15 min and after 60 min all sand flies were dead. In the garden, one fumigant caused mortality of 93% in the lower cages and 85.5% in the upper cages after 15 min. After 60 min the mortality was 98 and 92%, respectively. With two fumigants, all flies were dead within 15 min., (© 2012 The Society for Vector Ecology.)

A survey was conducted to evaluate the number of tree-hole breeding mosquito species and their distribution in the six principal woodland types in Israel. Out of approximately 3,000 mature trees examined, only 38 contained holes that retained water for extended periods of time, and breeding mosquitoes were observed in 27 of them. Two specialized tree-hole breeders, Aedes pulchritarsis Rondani and Aedes geniculatus Oliver, were found breeding at several sites in northern Israel, always at locations 500 m above sea level (a.s.l) and with high annual precipitation. Aedes albopictus Skuse which, in Israel, is known as an opportunistic container breeder, was found in this study to have adapted remarkably well to breeding in tree holes and was found in most forest types investigated and in most tree species which had adequate tree holes. Two other species, Culiseta annulata Schrank and Culex pipiens Linnaeus instars, were found in one of the tree holes, but did not survive to reach maturity., (© 2012 The Society for Vector Ecology.)

Knowledge of the horse fly fauna (Diptera: Tabanidae) of Lebanon is fragmentary, while the local fauna of most neighboring countries has been fairly well researched. Within the framework of the 20-year project "The ecology and zoogeography of the Lepidoptera of the Near East," we regularly collected biting flies in the whole region, including Lebanon. During this time we recorded 14 horse fly species for two subfamilies in Lebanon: four Pangoniinae and ten Chrysopsinae. Only a single species, Chrysops flavipes Meigen, 1804, was known previously in Lebanon, but the following four Pangoniinae: Pangonius haustellatus (Fabricius, 1781), Pangonius obscuratus Loew, 1859, Pangonius argentatus (Szilady, 1923), and Pangonius fulvipes (Loew, 1859) and nine Chrysopsinae: Silvius appendiculatus Macquart, 1846, Silvius ochraceus Loew, 1858, Nemorius irritans (Ricardo, 1901), Nemorius vitripennis (Meigen, 1820), Chrysops buxtoniAusten, 1922, Chrysops compactusAusten, 1924, Chrysops caecutiens (Linnaeus, 1758), Chrysops italicus Meigen, 1804, and Chrysops hamatus Loew, 1858 are new records for the Lebanese fauna. The Tabanidae fauna of Lebanon is completely Palearctic and most species are of a Mediterranean distribution type. Lebanon or nearby northern Israel appears to be in the Levant, the southern geographical distribution border for the Pangoniinae and Chrysopsinae., (© 2012 The Society for Vector Ecology.)

The horse fly fauna (Diptera: Tabanidae) of Jordan is, after Israel, the richest in the Levant, with 24 known species. During the 20-year project "The Ecology and Zoogeography of the Lepidoptera of the Near East," we regularly collected blood-feeding flies, resulting in 11 additional species of Tabanidae for Jordan. The new records are: Atylotus quadrifarius (Loew, 1874), Chrysops caecutiens (Linnaeus, 1758), Dasyrhamphis nigritus (Fabricius, 1794), Haematopota pallens Loew, 1871, Nemorius irritans (Ricardo, 1901), Philipomyia graeca (Fabricius, 1794), Tabanus cordiger Meigen, 1820, Tabanus taeniola Palisot de Beauvois, 1806, Tabanus quatuornotatus Meigen, 1820, Tabanus separatus Effllatoun, 1930, and Tabanus spectabilis Loew, 1858. Most of the new records (10/11) are of Palearctic origin; of these, six are of a Mediterranean and one each of West Palearctic, Euroasiatic, Irano-Turanian, and Eremic providence. Only one species, T. taeniola, is an Afrotropical-Eremic element., (© 2011 The Society for Vector Ecology.)

We tested the performance of ten commercial mosquito traps with varying attractive features, against three CDC traps (an unlit model 512, an incandescently lit model 512, and a UV lit model 1212) as well as simple sticky paper, for their ability to attract and capture Phlebotomus papatasi in Israel. The commercial traps tested were the Sentinel 360, the Combo Trap, the Mega Catch Premier, the Bug Eater, the EcoTrap, the Galaxie Power-Vac, the Biter Fighter, the Black Hole, the Mosquito Trap, the Mosquito Catcher, the Sonic Web, the Solar Pest Killer, and a Bug Zapper. The four best performing traps with the highest nightly catches were the Sentinel 360 (85.96 ±19.34), the Combo Trap (70.00±7.78), the Mega Catch Premier (51.93±1.82) and the UV lit CDC 1212 trap (47.64±3.43). Five traps--the Mosquito Trap, the Mosquito Catcher, the Sonic Web, the Solar Pest Killer, and the Bug Zapper--performed exceptionally poorly, catching an average of less than two sand flies per day. To our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive attempt to evaluate commercial traps for their effectiveness in catching sand flies, and we show here that some traps that have been effective in catching mosquitoes are also effective in catching sand flies., (© 2011 The Society for Vector Ecology.)

In this study, we evaluated the efficacy of eleven commercial models of propane combustion traps for catching male and female Phlebotomus papatasi. The traps differed in physical appearance, amount of carbon dioxide produced and released, type and location of capturing device, and the method by which the trap suction fans were powered. The traps tested were the Mosquito Magnet™(MM)-Pro, MM-Liberty, MM-Liberty Plus, MM-Defender, SkeeterVac®(SV)-35, SV-27, Mosquito Deleto™(MD)-2200, MD-2500, MT150-Power Trap, and two models of The Guardian Mosquito Traps (MK-01 and MK-12). All trap models except the SV-35, the SV-27, the MD-2500, and the MK-12 attracted significantly more females than males. The SV-35 was the most efficient trap, catching significantly more females than all the other models. The MD-2200 and MK-12 models were the least effective in catching either female or male sand flies. These data indicate that several models of propane combustion traps might be suitable substitutes for either CO(2) -baited or unbaited light traps for adult sand fly surveillance tools. One advantageous feature is the traps' ability to remain operational 24/7 for ca. 20 days on a single tank of propane. Additionally, the models that produce their own electricity to power the trap's fans have an important logistical advantage in field operations over light traps, which require daily battery exchange and charging., (© 2011 The Society for Vector Ecology.)

Knowledge about diurnal resting sites of sand flies is scanty and often anecdotal. In this study, we explored a part natural - part agricultural oasis in Neot Hakikar, Israel, looking for sand fly resting sites. To achieve this, we developed a new type of emergence trap. Sixteen types of microhabitats were examined and in seven of these, we also investigated the rodent burrows. We found that Phlebotomus papatasi showed clear preferences for resting sites characterized by vegetation cover, type of vegetation, and the presence of a mulch layer. In habitats with bare soil and little shade, few or no resting sand flies were found outside rodent burrows. Apart from the trunks of date trees, most resting P. papatasi were found in disturbed habitats, especially in large piles of organic waste and in a plowed field. Though catches from rodent burrow exits were always higher than from the nearby ground, it is safe to assume that the few burrows in this vast oasis do not play an important role for breeding and resting of P. papatasi. It also appears that disturbing the natural environment further increases the already considerable sand fly population., (© 2011 The Society for Vector Ecology.)

Sugar is the main source of energy for the daily activities of sand flies. Considering its importance, there is surprisingly little information on sugar meal specific sources and sand fly attraction to plants, particularly in the field. In this study, we first needed to develop an effective sand fly trap that would be suitable for mass screening of potentially attractive flowering plants. Next, we used this trap to screen a total of 56 different flowering plant species and five plant species soiled with different types of honeydew. The plant baited traps together caught 21,978 P. papatasi. Out of the 56 types of flowering plants which were tested, 13 were shown to bait significantly more female sand flies, and 11 baited more male sand flies than the control. Based on an attraction index, the top three attractive plants in this study were the flowering plants Ochradenus baccatus, Prosopis farcta, and Tamirix nilotica. We believe that plants and phyto-chemicals have untapped potentials to attract sand flies. These could be used for control and, in combination with simple glue traps, as an alternative for existing monitoring systems., (© 2011 The Society for Vector Ecology.)

We have previously shown that fermented ripe fruit is a strong attractant for several mosquito species, and when mixed with oral insecticide these attractive toxic sugar baits (ATSB) were highly effective for local mosquito control. In the present study, we compared the effects of ATSB presented in different ways on isolated populations of Phlebotomus papatasi Scopoli. Experiments were carried out in the arid habitat of the Jordan valley, Israel where the effectiveness of three methods was compared: ATSB sprayed on patches of vegetation, net fence coated with ATSB, and bait stations soaked with ATSB. Spraying ATSB reduced the population to about 5% of the control area population. Barrier ATSB coated fences, had a similar effect decreasing the population to about 12% of the concurrent catch in the control site. The effect of ATSB presented on bait stations was much smaller and compared to the control, only caused the population to be reduced to 40%. In the control areas where only food dye marker was used, the solution presented on bait stations only marked an average of 22.3% of female sand flies while spraying vegetation and using barrier fences in the two other experiments marked about 60% of the females. Our experiments show that ATSB either sprayed on the vegetation or on barrier fences is an effective means against sand flies at least in arid areas where attractive plants are scarce or absent., (© 2011 The Society for Vector Ecology.)

Recently, in several areas of the Middle East, a sharp increase of cutaneous leishmaniasis was observed in suburbs of larger towns including Jerusalem. In some of these areas, poor housing conditions and unsuitable waste management was suspected to provide ideal conditions for sand fly breeding, but hard data on diurnal resting sites and breeding habitats of most sand fly species are scant. In this study, we chose 16 sites on both slopes and the bottom of a natural valley in the Judean Desert to conduct a survey of sand fly distribution with emergence traps. Altogether, 1,261 sand flies, 52%Phlebotomus syriacus, 22%P. sergenti, 14%P. papatasi and 12%P. tobbi were caught. About two thirds of the flies caught were resting, while the other third emerged from breeding sites. All four species showed clear preferences for resting and breeding sites, but generally, most sand flies were breeding in the more humid habitats, namely the bottom of the valley, the adjacent north facing slope, terraces on the north facing slope, and caves. The vegetation cover also appeared to be important for resting habitats; on the bottom of the valley more than six times as many sand flies were collected in areas covered by dense vegetation than in areas with low vegetation cover. P. sergenti seemed also to better tolerate the drier habitats, which might explain the abundance of this species in the arid Judean Desert., (© 2011 The Society for Vector Ecology.)

Sand flies have been reported feeding on various plant organs including stems, leaves, and flowers but the attraction of sand flies to sugar-rich fruits has received little attention. In this study, we tested 24 commercially available fruits for their attractiveness to sand flies, and found that the top three attractive fruits were nectarine (Prunus persica var. nectarina), cactus fruit, (Opuntia ficus-indica), and guava (Psidium guajava). These fruits were fed upon equally by both males and females. There were slight differences in the order of preference to the less-attractive fruits by males and females, but these were not statistically significant. The knowledge of fruit preference may help to improve existing methods that use plant phytochemicals to attract and kill biting flies., (© 2011 The Society for Vector Ecology.)

We conducted two experiments to determine the best CDC-trap configuration for catching male and female Phlebotomus papatasi. First, visual features were evaluated. Standard CDC traps were modified to have black or white catch bags, black or white lids, or no lids and these were tried in different combinations. Significantly more male sand flies were caught by darker traps; significantly more females were captured by traps with either all black or a combination of black and white features. Attraction may be due to dark color or contrast in colors. CDC traps with suction and the following features were also evaluated: no light; incandescent light; ultraviolet (UV) light; combination of black color, heat and moisture; CO(2) alone, or a combination of black color, heat, moisture, and CO(2) simultaneously, all in upright and inverted positions, with the opening for insect entry always 50 cm above the ground. Significantly more females than males were caught by all traps (standard and inverted) except the control traps with suction only. Traps with CO(2) caught more sand flies than traps without CO(2.) Traps with black color, heat and moisture captured significantly more sand flies than the control traps, but with the addition of CO(2) , these traps catch significantly more sand flies than the other traps evaluated. Inverting traps increased the catch for like traps by about two times., (© 2011 The Society for Vector Ecology.)

Altogether, 4,008 sand flies belonging to seven species were collected over a period of one year in the micro-habitats of a single canyon in the Carmel Mountain ridge. The three most abundant were P. arabicus, P. tobbi, and P. simici. Our results suggest that none of the seven sand fly species was indifferent to the heterogeneity of the microenvironment inside the canyon. Apart from the rare P. perfiliewi, which was only collected on the upper part of the south-facing slope, and P. tobbi, which clustered on the north-facing slope, the bulk of the other sand flies were caught on the bottom of the canyon. During the summer, the catches of all sand fly species increased to reach their maximum number in August and September. In April and May, there was lush vegetation and humidity, so species were distributed evenly throughout their habitats. With the onset of summer dryness, the sand flies concentrated in the humid habitats. The rate of concentration was essentially higher for males than for females, and this variation may result from differences in the behavior of the two sexes. During our study, none of the 2,318 dissected female sand flies were positive for Leishmania promastigotes., (© 2011 The Society for Vector Ecology.)

We determined the degree of personal protection provided by citronella, linalool, and geraniol in the form of commercially available candles or diffusers, both indoors and outdoors. Under the uniform conditions of the experiments, all substances repelled significantly more mosquitoes than the unprotected control. Furthermore, the repellents tested were more active when in the form of a continuous release diffuser than in candle form. All candles were 88 g containing 5% of the active ingredient and all diffusers contained 20 g of 100% active ingredient. Indoors, the repellency rate of citronella candles was only 14% while the repellency rate of citronella diffusers was 68%. The repellency of geraniol candles was 50% while the diffusers provided a repellency rate of 97%. No linalool candles were available for study but linalool diffusers repelled mosquitoes by 93%. Outdoors, citronella diffusers placed 6 m from mosquito traps repelled female mosquitoes by 22%, linalool repelled females by 58%, and geraniol repelled females by 75%. Trap catches were significantly reduced again when diffusers were placed 3 m from the traps. We concluded that geraniol had significantly more repellent activity than citronella or linalool in both indoor and outdoor settings.