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Brown is a contrast color that depends on complex combinations of chromatic and achromatic signals. We measured brown perception with variations in chromaticity and luminance in center-surround configurations. In Experiment 1, the dominant wavelength and saturation in terms of S -cone stimulation were tested with five observers in a fixed surround luminance ( 60 c d / m 2 ). A paired-comparison task required the observer to select the better exemplar of brown in one of two, simultaneously presented, stimuli (1.0° center diameter; annulus of 9.48° outer-diameter). In Experiment 2, the same task was tested with five observers in which surround luminance was varied (from 13.1 to 99.6 c d / m 2 ) for two center chromaticities. The results were a set of win–loss ratios for each stimulus combination and converted to Z -scores. An ANOVA did not reveal a significant main effect of the observer factor but revealed a significant interaction with red/green ( a ∗ ) [but not with the dominant wavelength and the S -cone stimulation (or b ∗ )]. Experiment 2 revealed observer variation in interactions with surround luminance and S -cone stimulation. The averaged data plotted in 1976 L ∗ a ∗ b ∗ color space indicate that high Z -score values widely distribute in the area of a ∗ from 5 to 28 and b ∗ over 6. The balance of the strength between yellowness and blackness differs among observers owing to the amount of induced blackness required for the best brown.

Adaptive optics-optical coherence tomography (AO-OCT) permits improved imaging of microscopic retinal structures by combining the high lateral resolution of AO with the high axial resolution of OCT, resulting in the narrowest three-dimensional (3D) point-spread function (PSF) of all in vivo retinal imaging techniques. Owing to the high volumetric resolution of AO-OCT systems, it is now possible, for the first time, to acquire images of 3D cellular structures in the living retina. Thus, with AO-OCT, those retinal structures that are not visible with AO or OCT alone (e.g., bundles of retinal nerve fiber layers, 3D mosaic of photoreceptors, 3D structure of microvasculature, and detailed structure of retinal disruptions) can be visualized. Our current AO-OCT instrumentation uses spectrometer-based Fourier-domain OCT technology and two-deformable-mirror-based AO wavefront correction. We describe image processing methods that help to remove motion artifacts observed in volumetric data, followed by innovative data visualization techniques [including two-dimensional (2D) and 3D representations]. Finally, examples of microscopic retinal structures that are acquired with the University of California Davis AO-OCT system are presented. © 2007 Optical Society of America.

Chromatic contrast thresholds for spatially varying patterns of various spatial frequencies (0.5, 1, 2, and 4 cycles per degree) were measured for ten older (65-77 yr of age) and ten younger (18-30 yr of age) observers. The stimuli were Gabor patches modulated along S-varying or (L - M)-varying chromatic axes. Thresholds were determined for two sets of stimuli. For one set of stimuli, the mean chromaticity and luminance were equated at the cornea for all observers. The second set of stimuli was corrected for ocular media density differences to equate stimulation of each of the three cone types at the retina for each individual. Chromatic contrast thresholds were higher for older observers for all stimuli tested. The magnitude of this difference showed little dependence on spatial frequency. When stimuli were equated at the cornea, this difference was greater for S-varying stimuli. When stimuli were equated at the retina, the age-related difference in thresholds for S-varying stimuli was reduced. Both optical and neural factors contribute to these age-related losses in spatial chromatic contrast sensitivity.

Foveal and parafoveal increment thresholds were measured for 50 observers (12-88 years of age) under conditions that isolated retinal mechanisms dominated by short- (S-), middle- (M-), or long- (L-) wave-sensitive cones. Thresholds were obtained on the plateau of the threshold-versus-intensity function of each isolated mechanism and were referred to the retina by using individual measurements of ocular media and macular pigment density. Age-related increases in foveal thresholds, specified at the retina, were found for all three cone mechanisms. Parallel sensitivity losses for each cone mechanism were also observed at 4 degrees and 8 degrees in the temporal retina. A significant positive correlation was found between foveal macular pigment density and the S-cone, but not the M- and L-cone, log sensitivity difference (0 degrees-8 degrees) specified at the retina. This relation is expected from the hypothesis that the macular pigment protects the photoreceptors from senescent losses in sensitivity. However, because this result is independent of age, it is interpreted as being due to local gain changes resulting from differential filtering of incident light by the macular pigment between the fovea and the parafovea.

The maximum area of complete spatial summation (i.e., Ricco’s area) for human short-wavelength-sensitive- (S-) and long-wavelength-sensitive- (L-) cone mechanisms was measured psychophysically at the fovea and at 1.5°, 4°, 8°, and 20° along the vertical meridian in the superior retina. Increment thresholds were measured for three observers by a temporal two-alternative forced-choice procedure. Test stimuli ranging from -0.36 to 4.61 log area (min2) were presented on concentric 12.3° adapting and auxiliary fields, which isolated either an S- or an L-cone mechanism on the plateau of its respective threshold versus intensity function. Test flash durations were 50 and 10 ms for the S- and L-cone mechanisms, respectively. The data indicate that, from 0° to 20°, Ricco’s area increases monotonically for the L-cone mechanism, is variable for the S-cone mechanism, and is larger for the S-cone mechanism than for the L-cone mechanism for essentially all retinal locations. This pattern of results most likely reflects differences in ganglion cell density and changes in neural convergence with retinal eccentricity.

Saturation of two sets of stimuli was scaled by 21 color-normal observers (ten younger and 11 older observers, mean ages: 30 and 73 years). Circular fields, 1.2 degrees in diameter, were presented in Maxwellian view as 1.5-s flashes with 3-s interstimulus intervals. Stimuli were mixtures of broadband light [CIE(x, y) = (0.35, 0.39), 200 trolands (td)] and monochromatic light (420-700 nm, 50 td). Monochromatic lights were equated by the 1978 2 degrees fundamental observer's luminosity function in one set of stimuli [J. J. Vos, Color Res. Appl. 3, 125 (1978) and by each observer's heterochromatic flicker photometry function in the other set of stimuli. Comparing the two age groups reveals no sizable differences in saturation for either set of stimuli, neither supporting nor refuting neural compensation for age-related increases in ocular media density (OMD). Examining short-wavelength saturation as a continuous function of estimated OMD reveals a more complicated pattern of results, however, suggesting substantial compensation over a certain range of OMD values but incomplete compensation for observers with the highest OMD values.

Colorimetric purity (Pc) discrimination functions were measured for 21 color-normal observers (11 younger and 10 older observers with mean ages of 30 and 74 years, respectively). On each two-alternative-forced-choice trial, observers saw two flashes of light, a broadband white light [CIE(x, y) = (0.33, 0.35)] and a mixture of broadband and monochromatic light (420-680 nm). The observer's task was to choose the flash that had a chromatic component. Foveally viewed, circular, 1.2 degrees-diameter stimuli were presented as 1.5-s flashes with 3-s interstimulus intervals in Maxwellian view. Stimuli [250 trolands (td) and 10 td] were equated on the basis of individual heterochromatic flicker photometry functions. Measured Pc discrimination sensitivity was lower in the older group than in the younger group at both light levels, and the performance difference between the age groups was approximately constant across the spectrum. The difference between discrimination at 10 and 250 td was relatively small for the younger group but larger for the older group, indicating a selective performance decrement for older observers at low light levels. The data were modeled as a sum of differential responses from S-cone and L/M-cone chromatic channels. The model and the data indicate similar age-related losses of sensitivity in the two channels, perhaps secondary to receptorial sensitivity losses.

Spectral efficiency functions were measured for 50 color-normal observers (aged 19-85 years) by means of heterochromatic flicker photometry (HFP) and heterochromatic brightness matching (HBM). Foveally viewed, circular, 1.2 degrees-diameter stimuli were presented as 3-s flashes (50% duty cycle) in Maxwellian view. Monochromatic lights (420-700 nm; 16 wavelengths) were equated to a 100-Td (trolands), broadband white standard in both procedures. In both HFP and HBM, average sensitivity (specified at the cornea) decreased at short wavelengths with increasing age, consistent with age-related increases in the density of the ocular media. The short-wavelength HBM decline was of lower magnitude than the HFP decline. HFP data were modeled by a weighted additive combination of long- and middle-wavelength-cone inputs and density spectra of the ocular media and macular pigment. HBM data were analyzed with an upper envelope of additive and subtractive combinations of log-transformed cone absorption functions. These analyses indicated that HBM sensitivity, specified at the retina by correction for estimated lens and macular pigment density, increased with age in an approximately wavelength-independent manner over a broad range from 420 to 560 nm.

Mixtures of monochromatic lights that appear achromatic were measured for 50 normal, trichromatic observers ranging in age from 11 to 78 years. Stimuli were presented to one eye as a 1 degree-diameter, 1-s flash (10-s interstimulus interval) in Maxwellian view. We found the achromatic locus by varying the intensity ratio of each observer's spectral unique blue and unique yellow while maintaining constant overall retinal illuminance. Measurements were made for three levels of retinal illuminance (10, 100, 1000 trolands). Additional verification of the position of the achromatic locus in color space was obtained for 23 subjects with the use of a mixture composed of 600-nm light and its spectral complement. There were no significant changes in the achromatic loci as a function of age. The mean achromatic locus in CIE chromaticity space was x, y = 0.31, 0.31 or u',v' = 0.21, 0.46. These results suggest that partial compensation for age-related changes in visual mechanisms occurs in a way that preserves constancy of the achromatic locus across the life span.

Tests of additivity of the postreceptoral pathways that mediate the perception of blackness were conducted under conditions of spatial contrast. Observers increased the radiance of a surrounding annulus until a broadband (white) test center appeared completely black. Additivity tests with heterochromatic flicker photometry (HFP) and direct brightness matching were also conducted for each observer. The results indicated that the luminance level of the annulus required to induce blackness did not change with variations in spectral composition. Results consistent with additivity were also obtained for HFP, but the results from brightness matching were not consistent with additivity. The data support the view that the perception of blackness is mediated by neural mechanisms that additively combine the input of middle- and long-wave photoreceptors. © 1990 Optical Society of America.

We sought to measure the mechanisms underlying the perception of blackness in the following way. A central spot (45′) of fixed luminance was surrounded by a dark ring (7.5′), and surrounding all was an annular zone (30′) of light. This stimulus was presented in Maxwellian view for 0.5 sec every 3 sec. The radiance of the annulus required to make the central area (spot and ring) appear uniformly black was measured for different wavelengths (440–660 nm) of the annulus. These measurements were made for test spots that were either broadband or of wavelength 480, 500, 580, or 660 nm. In all conditions the measured spectral efficiency of induced blackness matched the inverse of the Vλfunction. Using the same stimulus, we have also measured increment-threshold functions. For a fixed luminance of the spot, the radiance of the surrounding annulus required to bring the central spot to threshold was measured. These increment-threshold functions do not match the Vλor blackness functions. Our results show that induced blackness is inversely related to the luminous efficiency function and that the spectral efficiency of induced blackness is distinct from the increment-threshold function measured under these conditions. Furthermore, blackness appears to be independent of the wavelengths of the inducing annulus as well as of the central spot. Thus these results link induced blackness to the luminance pathway and argue against the involvement of the chromatic pathways in the perception of blackness. © 1986 Optical Society of America.