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To evaluate the impact of breakfast consumption patterns on the nutritional adequacy of diets of young adults and determine possible ethnic and gender differences.Cross-sectional survey of young adults in Bogalusa, La.Twenty-four-hour dietary recalls were collected from October 1988 through October 1991 on 504 young adults (mean age=23 years, 58% women, 70% white).Analysis of variance and logistic regression techniques were used to investigate the relationship of breakfast consumption, ethnicity, and gender on dietary adequacy. The P values are from an analysis of variance model that adjusted for gender and ethnicity.Thirty-seven percent of young adults skipped breakfast. Of those who ate breakfast, 75% ate at home, 10% ate a fast-food breakfast, and 15% reported other sources. Mean energy intake from breakfast was 485 kcal; men consumed more energy than women (P.001), and blacks consumed more energy than whites (P.01). The breakfast meal provided an average of 13% of energy from protein, 55% from carbohydrate, 14% from sucrose, 34% from fat, and 12% from saturated fat. Whites consumed a breakfast higher in carbohydrate and sucrose than blacks, who consumed a breakfast higher in fat and saturated fat. Variations in breakfast foods consumed explained the racial differences in the nutrient composition of the breakfast meal. Young adults who skipped breakfast had lower total daily intakes of energy (P.0001), protein per 1,000 kcal (P.05), and saturated fat per 1,000 kcal (P.01) than those who consumed breakfast. For all vitamins and minerals studied, a higher percentage of young adults who skipped breakfast did not meet two thirds of the Recommended Dietary Allowance than those who consumed a breakfast.Encouraging consumption of breakfast, along with selection of more healthful breakfast food choices or snacks that are culturally appropriate, may be important strategies for improving the nutritional quality of young adults' diets.

To document the contribution of meat consumption to the overall nutritional quality of the diet and assess its impact on cardiovascular risk factors in young adults.A cross-sectional survey of young adults in Bogalusa, La.We collected 24-hour dietary recalls from 504 19- to 28-year-olds from 1988 through 1991.We examined dietary composition by meat consumption quartiles. Analysis of variance and Newman-Keuls range tests were performed.Young adults consume an average of 6.5 oz meat daily; whites most often consumed beef and blacks most often consumed pork and poultry. Persons in the25th percentile for meat consumption consumed a diet closest to recommended levels--with 11% of energy from protein, 55% from carbohydrate, 32% from fat, 11% from saturated fatty acids, and 264 mg dietary cholesterol. In contrast, persons in the75th percentile for meat consumption consumed a diet with 18% of energy from protein, 40% from carbohydrate, 41% from fat, 13% from saturated fatty acids, and 372 mg dietary cholesterol. Intakes of heme iron and phosphorus were lower and calcium intake higher in persons in the25th percentile compared with those in the75th percentile for meat consumption. The percent of persons meeting two thirds of the Recommended Dietary Allowances for vitamin B-12, niacin, and zinc was greater in the75th percentile for meat consumption compared with the25th percentile for meat consumption. We noted no differences across meat consumption quartiles in blood lipids and lipoproteins, anthropometric measurements, and hemoglobin levels.Consumption of moderate amounts of lean meat, along with healthier choices in other food groups, may be necessary to meet the current dietary recommendations.

To determine dietary fiber intake of children and young adults.Cross-sectional surveys of children and young adults in Bogalusa, La.Twenty-four-hour dietary recalls were collected from 1976 to 1988 on five cohorts of 10-year-olds (n = 1,254), two cohorts of 13-year-olds (n = 360), and young adults (n = 504) 19 to 28 years of age.Dietary fiber intake data were analyzed for age, race, and gender differences and for secular trends. Descriptive and inferential statistics were calculated where appropriate. Dietary composition and food sources were examined for race-specific and gender-specific quartiles for dietary fiber intake adjusted per 1,000 kcal.Even after adjusting for energy intake, total dietary fiber intake remained unchanged from 1976 to 1988, averaging 12 g or 5 g/1,000 kcal. Blacks and males had higher total fiber intakes than whites and females at all ages. Consumption of vegetables and soups and breads and grains accounted for 53% (10-year-olds) to 70% (13-year-olds) of the total fiber consumed. When children were stratified into quartiles on the basis of fiber intake per 1,000 kcal, the percentage of energy from total fat and saturated fat was lower, and the percentage of energy from carbohydrate was higher, in children with higher fiber intakes per 1,000 kcal.Dietary fiber intake of children has remained the same in the past 12 years and is comparable with the intake of young adults, which is well below the recommended level. Children with high fiber intakes (upper quartile) consumed less fat, particularly saturated fat, and more carbohydrate than children with low fiber intakes. Increasing consumption of whole-grain products, fruits, vegetables, and legumes (prepared with minimal added fat) will be necessary to reach the goal of optimal fiber intake and could result in an eating pattern that approaches the current recommendations for dietary fat and saturated fat.

A self-administered food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) was developed to indicate weekly consumption of 64 foods. Reliability, validity, and usefulness of the tool to define a protein eating pattern were determined. Adolescents (N = 1,108) completed the FFQ during the Bogalusa Heart Study. Two-hour and 2-week reliability measures demonstrated consistency of intake of specific foods. Frequency of foods obtained from seven consecutive 24-hour recalls was compared with frequency obtained from the FFQ. A mean 50% agreement for both frequency and quantity of food intake was observed. Geometric means showed differences in mean number of protein foods by age of adolescent but the only significant difference was for beef intake of 15-year-olds. White children reported more servings of beef, cheese, and vegetables with meat than did black children. Black children reported more servings of eggs, luncheon meat, pork, poultry, and total protein than did white children. Boys reported a greater frequency of total protein foods, specifically, eggs, milk, and poultry, than did girls. Significant correlations were noted between low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol and intake of eggs and luncheon meat. We were able to quantitate the reliability and validity of the FFQ and to use it to explore the association of specific eating patterns with cardiovascular disease risk.

Diets of four groups of 10-year-old children (no. = 871) from a biracial community were examined to document eating patterns and to note temporal trends in energy, protein, fat, and carbohydrate intakes. A 24-hour dietary recall method, incorporating numerous quality controls, was adapted for interviewing children. Protein provided 13%, fat 38%, and carbohydrate 49% of calories. Few racial differences in eating patterns were detected. Boys had higher energy intakes than girls, but after diets were adjusted per 1,000 kcal, no other sex differences in intake were found. Snacks yielded roughly one-third of daily energy intake, one-fifth of the day's protein, one-third of the fat, and two-fifths of the total carbohydrate intake. Density of macronutrients within the children's diets was consistent over time. Diets of children in the Bogalusa study typify the American eating pattern and are comparable with those found in major national surveys.

Social and behavioral learning methods, combined with nutrition counseling and innovative education modules, provide a well-rounded approach to eating behavior intervention. Dietitians can apply this multifaceted approach in various settings to maximize eating behavior change.

Diets of four groups of 10-year-old children (no. = 871, 30% black, 70% white) were examined over 10 years with 24-hour dietary recalls to study temporal trends in cholesterol, fat, and fatty acid intakes in a community. Boys had higher intakes per day and per kilogram body weight than girls for all nutrients (p less than .0001), but there were no sex differences in nutrients per 1,000 kcal. The only racial difference detected was a higher myristic acid intake in whites (p less than .02). There was a 16% decline in dietary cholesterol intake between 1978 and 1982. Three shifts in fatty acid intake increased the P:S ratio from 0.29 in 1973 to 0.45 in 1978: (a) a 5% decline in oleic acid, coupled with a 5% rise in linoleic acid; (b) a quadrupling of linolenic acid; and (c) less stearic and more myristic acid, with palmitic acid unchanged. Total fat intake provided 38% of the calories in each survey, but the changes in proportions of fatty acids paralleled trends in food consumption patterns and nutrient sources. Despite the changes, few children met prudent diet recommendations, and serum total cholesterol and very-low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol levels did not change over time.

To investigate caffeine intake patterns in children, dietary intakes were examined for a biracial sample of 1,284 infants and children. Twenty-four-hour dietary recalls were completed by parents of children aged 6 months and repeated at ages 1, 2, 3, and 4 years; children 10 years old served as their own respondents and were surveyed at ages 13, 15, and 17 years. The sample was 60% white and 40% black. Additional cohorts of 10-year-olds (no. = 686) were studied for temporal trend. Whites consumed significantly more caffeine than blacks as early as 1 year and persisted at a higher intake level from 2 to 17 years. This trend continued whether intake was measured in total milligrams, milligrams per 1,000 kcal, or milligrams per kilogram body weight. Significant sex differences in caffeine intakes per 1,000 kcal occurred among 15- and 17-year-olds (girls greater than boys). Peak periods of consumption occurred at ages 2, 3, 13, and 17. Snacks contributed large quantities of caffeine, particularly for 10-year-olds. Most frequent sources of caffeine were regular carbonated beverages, chocolate-containing foods, and tea. Mean intakes of caffeine for 10-year-olds were consistent from 1973 to 1982. Those observations document caffeine intakes beginning early in life.

Chemical analysis of food actually eaten would be the most accurate method for analyzing the diets of children, but this technique is not feasible for most nutrition staffs. An improved 24-hr. dietary recall can be used by a small, well trained staff to collect more reliable data on a large number of school children. Vigilant monitoring of school lunch operations, incorporation of known recipes in the ETNV, and organizing probing techniques are necessary to insure the reliability of the tool. The low coefficients of variation of duplicate recalls noted in the study indicate that the error of measurement between interviewers is small, if the tool is carefully tested and sophisticated before use in the field and if observers are carefully trained by a written protocol.

A self-administered workbook for dietary assessment in small groups was compared with 24-hour dietary recall interviews. Forty-seven 10- to 18-year-olds, in groups of 5 to 8, recorded consumptions during the previous 24 hours and responded to individual recall interviews. Photographs and names of foods served as probes. Standardized food models were used to estimate portions. Nutritionists calculated gram amounts of foods and beverages consumed and analyzed diets for nutrient intakes. Significantly higher niacin (17.4 mg vs. 15.8 mg, p less than .05) and slightly higher protein, animal protein, carbohydrate, and cholesterol (N.S.) were estimated by the group workbook method. Correlations for individual dietary components ranged from 0.69 to 0.93. Dinner accounted for most differences, with statistically greater mean intakes of nine dietary components shown by the workbook method. Thirty-four dinner foods (8%) were not listed in common by the two methods. Sixty-six foods (15%) listed by the two methods had differing gram amounts. Improvements should include increased parental verification of the evening meal, additional training with food models, and periodic rest sessions. The workbook method may expand the time frame studied per individual and increase the number of eating periods examined. Replicate examinations per individual provide measurement of intra-individual variation. This method has applications in studies for which large samples or repeated measures are required.

Electrolyte and mineral intakes assessed by 24-hour dietary recall were examined for race and sex differences in cohorts of infants and school-age children at 6 months and at 1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 13, 15, and 17 years. A fourfold increase in sodium intake occurred from 6 months to 4 years, and potassium intake doubled. Sodium increased from 0.88 gm at 6 months to 3.21 gm at 4 years and 3.67 gm by 17 years; a slight increase for potassium was noted from 4 to 17 years for boys. Calcium intake was relatively constant from 6 months to 17 years. Boys had higher intakes of sodium and sodium per kilogram body weight than did girls. Black children at 2, 3, and 4 years had significantly higher sodium, potassium, calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium expressed as total intake and per kilogram body weight than white children did. At 6 months, 66% of the infants exceeded the National Research Council's recommended range for sodium. At 1 to 10 years, 90% to 100% and at 13 to 17 years, 60% to 65% exceeded the recommended range. In contrast, 58% to 77% of preschool children and only 5% to 20% of school-age children surpassed the recommended potassium range. Fifty percent to 70% of children more than 10 years old achieved the recommended range for potassium. Approximately half of the children 6 months through 4 years of age met the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for calcium. Sixty percent to 80% of adolescents ingested less than two-thirds the RDA. Girls had lower intakes than did boys.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

It is unknown how different calculation procedures for quantitating foods can influence variation in nutrient values. Precision of calculation and transcription, plus a double-checking procedure, is standard Bogalusa Heart Study protocol. These procedures likely would minimize human error. Nevertheless, converting gram weight values for food (BHS) into the closest household measure (NCC) could influence analysis. If calculation procedures are similar, different nutrient values in 2 food composition tables would then account for most variation in results. Consistently lower values for sucrose by the NCC likely reflect the program's carbohydrate rationale, i.e., the classification of total carbohydrate into 3 categories--sucrose, starch, and other. Sucrose may then be underestimated, as the other carbohydrate value "indicates combinations of sugars and/or sugars and starch," such as those found in commercial products. The ETNV total sucrose value is a sum of the naturally occurring sucrose and sucrose added in commercial preparations. For this small sample, the group means of selected nutrients by 2 dietary computer analyses systems are quite similar, with the exception of sucrose. With fairly large standard errors for most components, a large sample might create a statistically significant difference. Periodic comparability checks are essential to document quality and similarity of data bases. Quality control procedures in dietary methodology should be analogous to techniques for physiological and biochemical measures, e.g., the Centers for Disease Control and LRC methods and standards. Low-level correlations observed between dietary intakes and risk factor variables imply no association. Comparison and improvements of data bases are timely and should increase the probability of identifying associations between dietary components and indicators of diseases.