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In this paper, we combine evidence from eight Indian pharmaceutical firms with extant literature and global best practices to conceptualize an integrative framework addressing the open innovation paradox (OIP), i.e., the tension between intellectual protection and openness. Firms in developing countries face additional challenges in the adoption of open innovation, such as the prevalence of open science norms, weak technology transfer systems, and mistrust between universities and industry; therefore, they employ open innovation selectively for pharmaceutical research. Prior research has examined the strategies to resolve OIP in the context of developed countries; the integrative framework proposed in this paper describes strategies for resolving the OIP in the context of developing countries. This framework illuminates the coping processes of the case firms and provides guidelines to uplift and accelerate the adoption of open innovation strategies in developing countries' pharmaceutical sectors, and thus provides value to both theory and praxis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper contributes to the growing literature on innovation networks exploring two understudied topics: the role of gatekeepers in innovation networks and the distinctive character of their linkages especially relating to their ability to overcome cognitive, institutional and geographical distances among network participants in the context of a developing country economy. We address two questions: (1) Which organizations play the regional gatekeeper role in innovation networks? (2) How are gatekeeper linkages affected by different kinds of proximity (geographical, institutional, cognitive and social)? The empirical analysis employs co-patenting data from Brazilian organizations. Universities and public research organizations are shown to be more likely to perform the regional gatekeeper role. Gatekeepers are able to overcome geographic and institutional distance. They also balance cognitive distance with other organizations when geographical or institutional proximities are present. Given their critical role in innovation networks, universities and other public research organizations deserve special attention in policies designed to foster technological upgrading and regional development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New technology transfer metrics relevant to the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) are presented in this paper. From a public sector management perspective, these metrics are important because they extend the current measures of technology transfer to include metrics that are unrelated to the size of the federal laboratory in question. This extension allows for a more meaningful comparison of some aspects of technology transfer activities at federal laboratories with differing sizes, missions, and policies. This paper applies proposed measures of technology transfer to data on NIST's technology transfer activities, compares these metrics across multiple organizations, provides suggestions for the interpretation of these metrics, describes limitations of these metrics, and suggests areas for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We describe public support for AI research in small firms using data from U.S. Department of Defense-funded SBIR projects. Ours is the first collection of firm-level project information on publicly funded R&D investments in AI. We find that the likelihood of an SBIR funded research project being focused on AI is greater the larger the amount of the SBIR award. AI-focused research projects are associated with a 7.6% increase in average award amounts. We also find suggestive evidence that the likelihood of an SBIR project being AI-focused is greater in smaller-sized firms. Finally, we find that SBIR-funded AI research is more likely to occur in states with complementary university research resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

CERN, the European Organization for Nuclear Research, is the most important laboratory for particle physics in the world. It requires cutting edge technologies to deliver scientific discoveries. This paper investigates the time span needed for technology suppliers of CERN to absorb the knowledge acquired during the procurement relation and develop it into a patent. We estimate count data models relying on a sample of CERN suppliers for the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), a particle accelerator. Firms in our sample received their first LHC-related order over a long-time span (1995–2008). This fact is exploited to estimate the time lag that separates the beginning of the procurement relationship and the filing date of patents. Becoming a supplier of CERN is associated with a statistically significant increase in the number of patent applications by firms. Moreover, such an effect requires a relatively long gestation lag in the range of five to eight years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We document that firms holding academic patents in their portfolios perform better in terms of market power since they benefit from academic knowledge spillovers generated by academic patents. On the other hand, we detect a negative effect on firms' short-term profitability imputable to a larger fixed cost associated to the acquisition and exploitation of these patents. In terms of policy, our analysis suggests focusing on company-owned academic patents. A set of economic incentives dedicated to university–industry knowledge transfer through academic patents could support integration between basic and applied research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Earlier studies provide mixed results regarding the influence of incubator resources on a startup's chances of survival. This study suggests that this is because they tend not to take into consideration the attributes of the founders who actually make use of those resources. Based on 59 student startups operating in an academic incubator, this study finds that founding teams' prior experience moderates the positive relationship between an incubator's mentoring program and the startup's chances of survival through the first year. The results demonstrate that the survival chances of startups whose founding teams have high levels of managerial experience or low levels of entrepreneurial experience are low when they do not take advantage of the incubator's mentoring program. Drawing on learning theory, this study explains how different types of prior experience influence the relationship between the incubator's mentoring program and the startup's first year survival chances. The study's results expand our understanding of and contribute to resource-based view theory by considering the interactive influence of founding teams' human capital and incubators' resources on startups' chances of survival. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper introduces the special section, which aims to shed new light on the dynamics of knowledge generation and transfer with respect to human and geographical dimensions. We first provide a review of the state of the art in the two research areas, using bibliometric techniques, with the aim of tracing the evolution of the literature. We proceed by identifying some promising areas for future research and by explaining how the manuscripts included in this special section can contribute toward bridging some of the gaps that have emerged in the literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examine the effects of agglomeration, differentiating between urbanization and localization economies, on four distinct types of innovation in manufacturing and services. Furthermore, estimating multilevel panel regression models, we investigate the sorting of highly innovative firms into dense urban and/or specialized regions by considering both observable and unobservable firm characteristics. The results indicate that spatial sorting is important. A large portion of the regional differences in firm innovation rates is due to firm characteristics. Estimates that ignore unobserved heterogeneity at the firm level still point to a positive and significant impact of localization economies on different types of innovation. However, once we include firm fixed effects and distinguish between manufacturing and services, only some weak indication for positive effects of localization on radical innovations of manufacturing firms remains. In addition, the probability to adopt an existing product by an manufacturing firm seems to be positively influenced by urbanization economies. For the service sector, in contrast, we find adverse effects of localization on different kinds of innovation and no important effect of urbanization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Star scientists played a major role in the founding and establishment of the biotech industry. But while numerous biotech spin-offs have been created in the U.S., few have been established in Europe, despite research in biotech and the presence of star scientists. In addition to the prestige of a researcher, we would therefore like to examine the importance of university culture and peer effects for the intention to create a spin-off. Because of the inadequacy of existing prestige indices, we created a new index to measure the prestige of scientists for our analysis. With data from 533 German and Swiss scientists in the life sciences, we will show that, besides other variables, prestige and peer effects influence the intention to create a university spin-off. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Entrepreneurial universities have gained increasing prominence across the globe and are now engines for regional economic development. While a few, elite universities are successful at developing and exploiting entrepreneurial capital, most universities have achieved only modest results, even after changing organizational structures, incentive systems and strategic priorities. Given this dichotomy, it is time for universities to examine how entrepreneurial education can play a greater role in shaping the entrepreneurial university model to exploit its benefits. We argue that the two institutionalized metrics—number of new firms formed and the amount of licensing revenue—used to evaluate performance of entrepreneurial universities are not easily applicable to science and technology entrepreneurship education. We integrate logic from stakeholder theory to provide a framework for explaining the relationship between entrepreneurship education and the formal and informal processes of technology commercialization within the entrepreneurial university. In addition, we advance a set of questions and performance metrics to evaluate entrepreneurial education initiatives inside of the entrepreneurial university. Thus, our paper includes educational assessment metrics reflecting the needs of a wider variety of stakeholders, including administrators, students, and technology commercialization offices. We conclude with a discussion on the implications for this framework including future research directions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past decades, entrepreneurial activity has started to be considered a third mission of higher education institutions. Our study examines the extent to which entrepreneurship at universities is driven by spatial proximity between university faculties. To this end, we use a new dataset that links information on business idea generation by faculties of German universities between 2007 and 2014 with comprehensive data on structural characteristics of these universities and faculties (e.g., number of academic staff, students, industry funding). Our analysis shows that the emergence of entrepreneurial ideas in natural sciences is positively affected by proximity to business schools. This pattern suggests the presence of knowledge flows between these two types of university faculties as an important source of science-based and technology-oriented business ideas. We do not find such a relationship between proximity to business schools and other faculties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding innovation barriers is critical for innovation policy to design better incentives to innovation. This study explores the factors that influence the perception of innovation barriers in two emerging economies, Mexico and Turkey. The analysis integrates three sources of data into a comprehensive database. For Mexico, we use data from the ESIDET, 2010; for Turkey, we use data from TurkStat, 2010; while institutional country context indicators were gathered from a set of international databases. Our results suggest that firm and context characteristics matter as determinants of a firm's perception of innovation barriers, while there are differences between successful innovators and unsuccessful innovators. This paper contributes to the empirical and theoretical debate on innovation barriers through the analysis of how successful and unsuccessful innovators in two emerging economies perceive innovation barriers. It also contributes to the discussion on the role of the institutional context on innovation barriers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies have typically focused on the relationship between technological distance between partners in alliances, and innovation performance, from a direct tie or dyadic perspective. This paper explores the ego network set up in order to disclose how the second order technological distance, which is the distance between the partner and the partner's partner, affects the innovation performance of the focal firm. To accomplish it, the network of alliances is built using biotechnological joint patents. The main result of this research is the finding of a positive quadratic relationship between the innovative performance of firms and second-order technological distance. This result has two implications. The first one is that the innovative performance of each firm embedded in a network cannot be optimized simultaneously. The second one, is that firm's decision makers should consider the second-order neighborhood of the focal firm to establish optimal alliance in terms of innovation and enhance firm's competitive advantage. Overall, this research set a new perspective to understand and improve the role of individual firms in collaborative networks, and help to complement the dominant view emphasizing the role of indirect ties in order to innovate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper addresses the 'network' and 'open innovation' paradigms by seeking to examine the factors associated with structural positioning within university–industry networks. Drawing upon a network analysis of knowledge-based ties held by universities across the regions of the UK, it is found that those universities with the most central positions (network centrality) within university–industry network structures also have high rates of relational involvement in activities such as spin-off generation and engagement in externally funded research projects. Some forms of activity, in particular intellectual property protection through patenting, are found to be negatively associated with centrality. Spatial location is largely found to be unrelated to the network centrality of universities. By utilising network centrality as one measure of the open innovation capability of universities, the paper indicates that a range of institutional characteristics and factors tend to either promote or limit the engagement of universities in open innovation practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the growing interest in understanding innovative activities, an important limitation of the current literature on innovation—both public and private—is an assumption that innovative activity is a homogeneous phenomenon. However, most innovative activities are heterogeneous in nature. One way of characterizing innovation heterogeneity is the complexity of innovations. Using data from public organizations, this paper is one of the first studies to develop a framework for and provide an empirical test of the main influences on innovation complexity within the public sector context. The empirical evidence suggests that employees' innovative behavior and cooperation, along with collaborating with important external sources and the ability to work in a complex environment, are positively associated with complex innovations in the public sector, suggesting that the influences on complex innovations span the individual, work group, and external environment levels. However, an organization's leadership quality and innovation climate do not have any statistical effect on complex innovations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The debate on the industry-science cooperation has raised questions about what determines the successful interactions and their impact on a firm's innovation performance. This paper discusses the relevance of traditional hypotheses on the relationship between industry and science to developing countries using the evidence from Russian manufacturing. We distinguish between several modes of cooperation (new-to-market innovation, new-to-firm innovation, acquisition of non-R&D services) and investigate a broad range of determinants, including competition regime, absorptive capacity, technological opportunities, appropriability conditions and public support. Our findings illustrate that in less-developed national innovation systems with below average levels of technological opportunity, the industry-science link is influenced more by the specificity of economic activity, firm size and maturity than a result of higher firm-level innovation effort. Public support should be specifically tailored to promote networking with R&D organizations and universities and must consider expanding the focus to account for non-R&D based cooperative activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Productivity improvements generally are driven by technology innovation and its spillovers. This study explores the role of R&D investment and intermediate input trade in productivity growth using country-industry-level data for 25 advanced and emerging economies. This paper confirms that R&D investment and intermediate input import/export (both intra- and inter-industry) with technologically advanced economies play important roles in productivity growth in non-frontier countries. We further find that the productivity gains of technology spillovers via input trade channels are likely larger for countries/industries where technology converges to the frontier. These findings imply that the recent slowdown in R&D investment and intermediate input trade in some advanced economies may contribute to declining productivity growth. The potential productivity improvements from R&D investment and free trade as well as the importance of domestic capacity in facilitating technology spillovers should be recognized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses the role of higher education institutions within the framework of the knowledge triangle between academic education, scientific research and innovation, as it has gained importance in recent years as a framework for innovation policies especially in the OECD and Europe. First, complementary concepts of universities' outreach activities and extended role model such as 'third mission', 'triple helix', 'entrepreneurial or civic university' models and 'smart specialization' are reflected against their fit with the concept of the knowledge triangle, also with respect to new requirements for university governance. Second, a new understanding of spillovers between public sectors research and the business sector according to knowledge triangle is presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Technology transfer in emerging knowledge areas such as the bioeconomy is strongly challenged. The related challenges are attained to the differences in perceptions, objectives, values and motivations between academic scientists and firms stemming from different disciplines and industries. Group concept mapping, an exploratory and bottom-up participatory method that brings together stakeholders to represent their collective perceptions, was therefore applied to investigate challenges in technology transfer. Using this approach, this study is able to offer the first overview of factors affecting technology transfer in the bioeconomy through the aggregate representation of the perceptions of different stakeholder groups (i.e. academic scientists, technology transfer facilitators, and firms/entrepreneurs). These factors are visualized in form of maps by means of multidimensional scaling and hierarchical cluster analyses. Furthermore, a quantitative ranking of the factors is used to demonstrate the degree to which the importance of the perceived factors differs across stakeholder groups. Factors related to interdisciplinary collaborations and collaborations between academics and firms as well as those tied to financial issues or consumer acceptance are assigned the highest level of relative importance. However, these factors are also characterized by the lowest level of relative coherence across key stakeholders. Finally, managerial and policy recommendations for cultivating successful technology transfer in the context of other interdisciplinary and emerging knowledge areas are suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper studies the innovation productivity of academic researchers across their career advancement. Taking patents and invention disclosures as indicators of innovation productivity and using survey data from a large German public research organization, researchers' productivity is examined during early career and early to mid-career across various dimensions, including years since employment, years since terminal degree and age. The extant literature has primarily focused on publishing productivity of researchers. Results show that early leadership position consistently enhances innovation productivity during the life cycle. However, the effects of the other dimensions differ somewhat. Interestingly, having a doctoral degree enables one to overcome the disadvantages of being a female researcher, and German citizen increases productivity for the overall sample and for early to mid-career researchers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we analyze the contribution of academics to corporate technology development. Firm patents that involve (Flemish) academic inventors are contrasted with patents developed in-house. Two distinctive patterns emerge. First, firms involve academics relatively more often when exploring new technological fields (novel to the firm). At the same time, the majority of inventions in which academics become involved still reside in domains familiar to the firm (exploitation). Second, the impact of academic involvement differs significantly depending on whether contributions are situated in familiar or novel domains. When working in domains in which the firm has previous experience, academic involvement leads on average to fewer subsequent inventions (by the firm), whereas the reverse pattern occurs when firms engage academics in exploring new domains. These seemingly opposing patterns can be reconciled by taking into account familiarity with the underlying domain: academic involvement results in the creation of new options when exploring new domains while the benefits of engaging academics in exploitation reside mainly in eliminating (real) options. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper investigates the relationship between public research and radical technological development. This study draws on the theory of recombinant innovation and builds on two newly developed indicators of novelty that proxy different forms of radicalness, to analyse UK patents filed at the European Patent Office. It assesses whether the proximity of the invention to public research is related to a higher probability of the invention being radical. The results show that, depending on the type of novelty embodied by the radical invention (novelty in recombination or novelty in technological origin), different forms of public research output (proprietary output or open science) relate to the radicalness of invention in different ways. Moreover, these relationships are highly heterogeneous among technological sectors, and most of the proximity between codified public research and radical inventions occurs in the chemistry technology field. We provide some implications for policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Corporate R&D engineers, being usually the initiators of a patent, are important contributors to the patenting performance of their employers. Hence, patenting motives of R&D engineers encompass an interesting and promising research field. However, the literature on patenting motivation of the engineers in the corporate context is scarce. We apply self-determination theory on human motivation to investigate patenting motives of a sample of local R&D engineers in China employed by a European-based multi-national corporation. Factor analysis reveals four groups of motives: "reward and recognition", "reputation and promotion", "making a contribution" and "interest and sense of achievement". The results of multiple hierarchical regression show the influence of working climate on "making a contribution" and "interest and sense of achievement" motivation factors. Implications for patent management are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We assess the relationship between firms' Research and Development expenditures over sales and innovation output, measured by three dummies indicating whether firms have introduced any product innovation, process innovation or both types of innovations together. In particular, we estimate the impact that external sources of R&D may have on different kind of innovations, differentiating between R&D supplied by universities and other research centers, on one side, and other companies, on the other. We base our empirical analysis on a large and representative sample of European manufacturing companies from France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and the UK. Treating R&D intensity as an endogenous variable, we find that (1) R&D intensity has a positive and significant effect on the probability to introduce product innovations, process innovations, or both innovations together; (2) the share of R&D acquired from external sources has a positive impact on process innovation, and on the probability to introduce product and process innovation together, but not on product innovation alone; (3) the share of external R&D supplied by universities has a positive and significant effect on product innovation, but no correlation has been found with process innovation, while R&D acquired from other companies have a positive impact on process innovation but not on product innovation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to explore the impact of organizational context on individuals' industry activities in Chinese universities. Academic engagement, which includes collaborative research, contract research, consulting and other informal outreach activities, is posited as being jointly determined by organizational and individual level factors. Based on 564 Chinese scientists' survey responses, our results show that scientists perceiving their university as having a strong entrepreneurial mission or supportive policy context are more active in academic engagement. This relationship is, however, moderated by individual-level factors. Specifically, entrepreneurially oriented university missions and supportive policy are more strongly associated with intra-individual differences in academic engagement for junior scientists, and for scientists with established personal networks to industry. Our analysis also shows that several individual-level predictors of academic engagement identified in studies set in Europe and the US carry over to the Chinese context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to reflect and articulate the key scholarly contributions made by Cristiano Antonelli in his pathbreaking book, The Knowledge Growth Regime: A Schumpeterian Approach and why it is so important, not only to scholars of innovation and Schumpeterian economics, but also to the entirety of economic thinking. This paper highlights how this important new book breaks new and important ground paving the way for a new paradigm in economics, where knowledge takes the center stage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper builds upon the knowledge-based view and organizational learning perspective. It develops and empirically tests a conceptual model to analyse the drivers and benefits of university–industry cooperation from the firm perspective. We used structural equation modeling to examine data collected from a sample of small and medium-sized Italian firms in the information and communication technology sector. We found that past collaborative experience increases the benefits drawn from university–industry cooperation. Both collaborative know-how and trust, however, play a significant mediating role on the relationship between collaborative experience and benefits. In particular, collaborative know-how is the main factor enhancing intangible benefits, such as knowledge transfer and learning, while trust is the main driver of tangible benefits, such as product and process innovations. Taken together, these findings suggest that firms should develop strategic competences to fully benefit from collaborations with universities because past collaborative experience alone is not sufficient. From the policy point of view, effort is needed to build channels and tools enhancing trust between industry and university, especially to support small firms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper analyses how geographical clustering of beneficiaries might affect the effectiveness of public innovation support programs. The geographical proximity of firms operating in the same industry or field of technology is expected to facilitate innovation through knowledge spillovers and other localization advantages. Public innovation support programs may leverage these advantages by focusing on firms that operate in a cluster. We investigate this link using data from a large German program that co-funds R&D projects of SMEs in key technology areas called 'Innovative SMEs'. We employ three alternative cluster measures which capture industry, technology and knowledge dimensions of clusters. Regardless of the measure, firms located in a geographical cluster are more likely to participate in the program. Firms being part of a knowledge-based cluster significantly increase their chance of receiving public financial support. We find no effects, however, of geographical clustering on the program's effectiveness in terms of input or output additionality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this article and the special issue is to improve our understanding of the theoretical, managerial, and policy implications of the effectiveness of technology transfer policies on entrepreneurial innovation. We accomplish this objective by examining the relationship between entrepreneurship, innovation and public policies in the 186 papers published from 1970 to 2019. Our analysis begins by clarifying the definition of entrepreneurial innovations and outlining the published research per context. We then present the seven papers that contribute to this special issue. We conclude by outlining an agenda for additional research on this topic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we review the legislative emphasis on technology transfers from U.S. federal laboratories, and we present a framework to describe how private sector firms benefit from the adoption of technologies from federal laboratories. We conclude that if a federal laboratory can provide the technology being transferred more efficiently than the private sector can develop it, there is a social gain from the federal laboratory doing so. The social gain will be realized in part by increased profits for the private firms using the technology and in part by consumers who have higher reservation prices for higher quality products and services and who pay lower prices because firms' costs are lower. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Within the technology transfer field, there have been numerous empirical studies taking US data and context that have examined the impact and effect of government legislation aimed at supporting effective technology transfer, particularly from universities and federal research laboratories to the market. However, there is a paucity of such studies in other geographical domains. Existing studies have further not focused on examining the simultaneous effects on entrepreneurial and innovative outcomes of university focused technology transfer policies. We address these research gaps by examining the effects of a far-reaching legislation change in Germany, reforming the old 'professor's privilege' (Hochschullehrerprivileg). The purpose of this paper is to investigate whether regional entrepreneurial and innovative outcomes have been affected by this legislative change in intellectual property rights of inventions made by scientists. Our results suggest that this legislative change did have an initial positive effect on universities as measured by start-ups and patents. The effect yet changed over time, leading to some unintended consequences. Our paper argues that policy makers and legislators need to give consideration to the replication of policy and legislative instruments from other contexts along with the criteria that are used to measure success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The transition from a socialist economy to one of capitalism brought, to many countries that had previously been socialist, a drastic decline in their technological competences, technological transfers, and research activities after the 1990s. This research seeks to assess whether or not the policy of technology transfer practised during the socialist era improved for these countries following their entry to a capitalist regime and their subsequent joining of the European Union, and whether or not these two processes (which historically coincide for many previously socialist countries) correlate. Croatia is used as an example of a typical transition country possessive of a specific type of market socialism, with controversial outcomes arising from its particular transition process in comparison to its peers. Despite the assistance of the European Union, which helped many new members from socialist backgrounds to recover their economies by upgrading their technological capabilities, this research reveals that technology transfer in less technologically developed countries is unfolding very slowly. Technological transfer occurs as a highly contextual phenomenon, dependant not only on the structure of the economy and technological and research capacities, but also on the political economy and the type of capitalism. This research identifies the three phases of the evolution of university technology transfer: science based models in socialism; endeavours towards an innovation based model throughout the transition period; and the bureaucratic model, driven by the EU cohesion policy and facilitated through access to the European Structural Funds. This research points out that bureaucratic-driven types of technology transfer should be coupled with nationally concerned actions on overall economic and political reforms in order to gain efficient results from their technology transfer efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a model where technology transfer (TT) is embedded into a non cooperative model of utility and profit maximization and is the result of an endogenous matching process between technology transfer offices and innovative firms. We show that TT strictly depends on the costs of searching researchers and firm advertising for vacant projects. In this scenario, technology progress might be excessively low if technology transfer offices search for project matches too much intensively. The result occurs because both sides of the market ignore the externalities of their decisions. Complementarity or substitutability between the tightness in the TT market and the technology stock are both potential equilibrium outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Bayh–Doyle Act of 1980 accelerated academic entrepreneurship in universities. However, not all qualified researchers sought to be involved in patenting. We compared researchers' human capital and their perceptions of resource availability on patent applications. We collected primary data from biomedical principal investigators from 15 universities using a validated questionnaire. Our results from logistic regression strongly suggest that human capital had a stronger influence than perceptions of resource availability for commercialization activities on patent applications. The policy implications are that universities should seek to enhance the stock of human capital most associated with patenting behaviors to improve academic entrepreneurial outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

R&D stands for Research and Development and while research is essential for new product development in biotechnology, the development and its integration with research (the transfer from research to development) is underexplored. Without efficient and successful process development, biotech companies would not sustain in the long run as process development is a necessary condition en route to industrial commercialization. Based on qualitative interviews with 31 biotech companies and experts, we test a framework with technological, operational and organizational boundary conditions influencing the transfer between product and process development. Our results uncover two additional dimensions: relational and market determinants. We further identify uncertainties in the transfer and investigate if standardization can mitigate these uncertainties and eventually facilitate the integration of product and process development. We find that standardization is a beneficial mechanism for successful integration of the front end of process development activities. The present investigation contributes to the understanding of standards as a knowledge and technology transfer instrument for complex and critical development activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the contribution of external-to-the-firm knowledge to the inventive process inside companies by exploiting a survey of industrial inventors combined with patent data. In the empirical analysis, inventors' knowledge sourcing strategies are employed as explanatory factors for their inventive performance. The results suggest that both the separate and joint use of external scientific and market knowledge are positively and significantly associated with inventors' quantity and quality of inventions. In addition, higher levels of education act as a moderating factor of the joint use of scientific and market knowledge. Tracing a positive link between external knowledge and individual inventive process is relevant for research as well as policy, considering that knowledge exchange across a wide range of organisations is at the core of the innovation policy agendas in most countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines how ambidextrous search strategy that conjointly pursuing technology search and market search affects innovation, as well as under what circumstances this relationship would be improved. In particular, we develop a model suggesting that a firm's resource and structural attributes significantly shape the relationship between ambidextrous search and innovation. Using a data set composed of 233 firms, this study finds that ambidextrous search in terms of the interaction between technology search and market search plays a negative role in product innovation. Further, the relationship between ambidextrous search and innovation is positively moderated when the firm has more slack resources, or is less formalized. In particular, the firm characterized by high organizational slack and low formalization is the best at gaining innovation benefits of ambidextrous search. The findings enrich the discipline's knowledge on the implications of search patterns especially regarding the question of how to maximize their contributions to product innovation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The substantial acknowledgement of university–industry (U–I) collaborations as promotor of economic progress, innovativeness and competitiveness fostered a continuous research engagement. At the same time, the U–I literature experienced a notable increase in the past decade, transforming into a multi-faceted and ambiguous research field, characterised by highly complex interlinks. The recent transformation hinders a comprehensive understanding of the latest developments in research directions and their clear delineation. Therefore, the purpose of this bibliometric literature review is to examine the evolution of the field and identify the primary emerging patterns. This paper employs co-citation analysis and bibliographic coupling techniques to analyse the U–I publications dataset. The findings indicate that the U–I collaborations research can be systematically clustered, resulting in an interconnected ecosystem consisting of three levels: individual, organisational and institutional, respectively. Thus, this review presents the immense contribution that the analysis of U–I collaborations makes to various research streams. Building on these findings and employing qualitative content analysis on the clustered publications, the paper develops a research agenda that encourages future investigations of previously overlooked features of U–I collaborations in general, and their role across levels of analysis, contexts and stages of the collaboration process in particular. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is concerned with how government research funding and collaboration between researchers affect academic technological production in the context of nanotechnology in Canada and in the United States. We use the co-invention and co-authorship networks of scientists to build indicators of collaborative behaviour and investigate whether the nature of the network plays a role in the academic technological productivity and quality. Results suggest that technological output has the potential to offer governments useful guidance concerning the effectiveness of academic grants and collaboration in the United States and in Canada. This paper provides evidence that the position of researchers in both co-invention and co-publication networks does influence technological productivity and quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Technology transfer to society is—in addition to research and teaching—widely acknowledged as a third mission of modern universities. Academic entrepreneurship and academic patenting are two closely related means to do so and, more often than not, patenting activity and entrepreneurship are part of a linear sequence in the commercialization process. This paper is mainly concerned with the first step. To further academic patenting, university administrations have installed or expanded existing technology transfer offices (TTOs) as active stakeholders in the university ecosystem. These offices must find the right measures (e.g., monetary or non-monetary incentives or providing information at internal events) and offer them to the right group of scientists (e.g., departments) at the right point in time. This is challenging because scientists' decision whether to publish or patent depends on several factors, including individual preferences, perceived normative social pressure from peers, level of information received through word-of-mouth communication or informational events, and previous first-hand experience. An agent-based simulation approach may serve as a decision aid for this purpose. Such an approach models stakeholders as 'agents' who interact with each other, and through these interactions, the system's behavior evolves and can be observed. In this paper, we introduce an agent-based simulation for evaluating measures that can be employed by a TTO in order to stimulate academic patenting and, subsequently, the foundation of spin-off companies relying on such patents. The applicability of the approach is illustrated through an example. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Assessing the role of publicly funded scientific research in entrepreneurial ecosystems is of great interest for science and entrepreneurship policy. Knowledge from academic research flows into the private sector through publications, patents, and researcher mobility as well as through direct interactions between founders and researchers at public research institutions (PRIs). New technology-based firms (NTBFs) are generally praised for high innovativeness despite their resource constraints and liability of newness. This study therefore investigates the impact of direct interactions with PRIs on NTBFs' innovation success. In a large sample of NTBFs in Germany, we find that those firms engaging in such knowledge interactions are more likely to introduce new products and services to the market. The strength of this association, however, depends on interaction persistency, internal R&D and the founders' academic backgrounds. Non-academic start-ups benefit more from continuous informal interactions if they pursue own R&D, which suggests that absorptive capacity matters. In academic start-ups, higher intensities of both formal and informal interactions are associated with greater innovation likelihood. Moreover, continuous informal interactions complement formal ones in the absence of own R&D activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Public funding of research improves the systemic conditions of entrepreneurial ecosystems. It provides early-stage financing to technologies that form the basis for new products and services. In addition to financial support, instruments as the EC Framework Programmes (FP) facilitate the creation of research networks. By bringing together organisations of various types and geographic origins and increasing the diversity of their interactions, the instrument seeks to accelerate a discovery process in which organisations attempt to bring desired innovations to the market and society. In this paper, we examine the impact of organisational and geographic diversity of partnerships in EU-funded research networks on the commercial potential of their innovations. We explore a sample of 603 collaborative research projects supported by European FPs. We use data from the Innovation Radar, a unique survey database developed by DG CONNECT to assess the innovation outcomes of FP projects in ICT. We show that innovations developed by research networks with a higher organisational diversity have more commercial potential. This finding supports the idea that policies improving systemic conditions of entrepreneurship ecosystems through the creation of institutionally diverse research networks can have beneficial effects on the commercialisation potential of innovations developed in FP projects. In contrast, research networks with a wider range of internationally dispersed research partners are likely to have less innovation potential. This may suggest the existence of coordination and communication difficulties in FP projects where geographic diversity is greater. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A growing literature in public management has identified the key role that innovation can play in enhancing agency efficiency, effectiveness, performance and legitimacy. However, considerably less is known about the actual sources of knowledge generating innovative activity in the public sector. This paper fills this crucial gap in the literature by explicitly analyzing the link between a key source of knowledge and ideas, universities, and the innovative activities of public organizations. By utilizing a new source of data, this paper is able to show that not only do universities play a key role in generating innovative activity in public organizations, but the nature of innovations and their impact on public sector performance are related to the role played by universities. The findings suggest that universities play a key role in generating innovative activity in public organizations as doing so can increase the quality of public services, employee job satisfaction, and interagency collaboration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Enterprises' resources and capabilities determine their ability to achieve competitive advantage. In this regard, the key innovation challenges that enterprises face are liabilities associated with their age and size, and the entry barriers imposed on them. In this line, a growing number of enterprises are starting to implement innovation practices in which they employ both internal/external flows of knowledge in order to explore/exploit innovation in collaboration with commercial or scientific agents. Within this context, universities play a significant role providing fertile knowledge-intensive environments to support the exploration and exploitation of innovative and entrepreneurial ideas, especially in emerging economies, where governments have created subsidies to promote enterprise innovation through compulsory university partnerships. Based on these ideas, the purpose of this exploratory research is to provide a better understanding about the role of universities on enterprises' innovation practices in emerging economies. More concretely, in the context of Mexico, we explored the enterprises' motivations to collaborate with universities in terms of innovation purposes (exploration and exploitation) or alternatives to access to public funds (compulsory requirement of being involved in a university partnership). Using a sample of 10,167 Mexican enterprises in the 2012 Research and Technological Development Survey collected by the Mexican National Institute of Statistics and Geography, we tested a multinomial regression model. Our results provide insights about the relevant role of universities inside enterprises' exploratory innovation practices, as well as, in the access of R&D research subsidies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For sustainable and effective innovation, who should own an academic patent obtained as a result of funded research? The issue of ownership can influence the motivation of academic researchers. In this paper, we address this issue from the perspective of engineering graduate students who have experience of R&D projects. We aim to investigate engineering graduate students' views on inter-organizations aspects of patent ownership; and patent ownership policies within university. In this paper, we carried out classification tree analyses of preferred ownership categories, using various factors related to 'researchers and the environment for R&D,' 'technology,' 'patenting activities,' 'sponsors,' 'currently existing ownership policy,' and 'compensation policy'. Our findings can help design an effective ownership policy that promotes innovation by incorporating the views of students who will be important asset for future innovation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Empirical studies have consistently illustrated the existence of a relationship between the level of productivity and the international commitment of firms. Few studies have considered the effects of learning by foreign direct investment (FDI). We use a sample of Spanish manufacturing firms to analyze the effect that the multinational enterprise status of a firm has on its ex-post innovative performance and productivity. Our findings reveal dynamic positive effects of FDI on the technological performance of firms, with increments in patents and product innovation taking place before subsequent increments in productivity occur. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the effect of risk attitudes on innovation behavior of academic researchers. Specifically, using two alternate measures of self-reported risk attitudes, we test the hypothesis that aversion to risk would negatively affect revelation of information in innovations. Results based on a sample of more than 2500 German researchers across both measures of risk aversion show that, consistent with intuition, risk aversion has a significant negative effect on invention disclosures, but not on patenting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies on incentives to stimulate researcher engagement in knowledge valorisation have primarily focused on incentives for economic output and it remains unclear how universities configure incentives for a broad societal impact of knowledge. Therefore, this article explores the presence and design of incentives for the full range of knowledge valorisation activities by employing a bottom-up, mixed-methods design. In 17 semi-structured interviews with representatives from highly ranked European universities, 11 distinct incentives for valorisation activities with an academic, civil society, entrepreneurial or state-governmental orientation were identified. Subsequently, a quantifying survey was conducted (n = 48). Perceived effectiveness did not directly correspond to presence and desirability, indicating that additional motives play a role in implementing incentives, including managing conflict of interest situations. For non-scalable (hour-based) activities broader bandwidths of allocated percentages were employed that were more dependent on case by case attribution of income and for which more conditions to limit conflicts of interest were in place. Interestingly, this study found a negative correlation between the number of such restricting conditions being in place for consultancy and the university's overall success in industry income. A flowchart is presented that university management may use to align the selection and design of their incentives with their motives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we compare the relationship between a firm’s innovation capital and the likelihood that a firm will commercialize an invention. Our index of innovation capital is the product of the firm’s human capital, social capital, and reputational capital. We find from our empirical experiment, which uses Small Business Innovation Research data, that innovation capital is a statistically more important entrepreneurial input to the innovation output of commercialization than any of its components. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]