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This article examines the livelihoods and experiences of local people after two decades of living close to a strict protected area (PA). A total of 290 local PA neighbors and 60 key informants were interviewed. Findings reveal a limited access to assets and low incomes. An average PA neighbor earns US$0.5 per adult equivalent unit (AEU)/day. PA proximity is associated with lower incomes, mainly because of wildlife damages that cost an average household (HH) up to 10% of its annual income. Other recurrent PA costs include the “invisible” costs incurred to cope with crop raiding, and restricted access to PA resources, that jointly amount to 16% of an average HH’s annual income. PA benefits include the sharing of tourism revenues, integrated conservation and development projects, and park-related employment. In total, benefits constitute 3.5% of the total annual income of an average HH, a figure higher than the contribution of other PAs in Uganda. However, overall, an average HH accrues a net annual loss of 12.5% of its total income or a total loss of US$1.54 million for the 1,1875 HHs, yet the park sends up to US$7 million to the central treasury. This highlights the need for policy revisions of the political economy of PA management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Australia is a federation in which the Constitution vested forest management to the states. A joint Commonwealth-state process was developed to implement a National Forest Policy, involving joint oversight of resource assessment and planning for each of eleven regions. Codes of forest practice and planning systems were greatly improved by incorporating available research on nonwood as well as wood uses. The 39% increase in the area of conservation reserves system necessitated major withdrawals from wood production. Despite the increases in reserves, conservation groups and allied interests were generally dissatisfied with the outcomes. Furthermore, resource security for the industry was not realised. Pre-election promises made by incoming governments, both state and Commonwealth, involved breaking the spirit, if not the letter of the agreements. Nevertheless, lower order processes of third-party audits and joint reviews of practices and planning should be continued to improve sustainability and the information made available in forms accessible to the community. The contribution of science, however, is limited by the inability to adequately evaluate the tradeoffs between uses. The higher level processes should identify the major options and leave the political process, he that state or Commonwealth, to resolve the choice between them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We analyzed the effects of landscape measures within the Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SF1) program on the suitability, abundance and spatial pattern of vertebrate habitats based on modeling and simulation of landscape and stand structure in a forested watershed in East Texas. Eight vertebrate species representing guilds established according to breeding and foraging requirements were selected: American beaver (castor canadensis), American woodcock (Scolopax minor), pine warbler (Dendroica pinus), downy woodpecker (Picoides pubescens), barred owl (Strix varia), wild turkey (Meleagris gallopato silvestris), fox squirrel (Sciurus niger) and gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis). Habitat suitability of the landscape in general increased with the implementation of SF! measures and habitat conditions were more diverse and even. Fragmentation and establishment of narrow and elongated habitat areas in a network configuration were the main consequences of the implementation of SF1 measures in terms of habitat spatial structure. These changes were usually not limiting for the species analyzed. Mature pine Sand hardwood stands were absent from the simulated landscapes limiting the habitat for species like downy woodpecker or barred owl. Most of the species considered in this work benefited particularly from the implementation of streamside management zones (SMZs). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper critically examines the local community benefits associated with intensively managed industrial roundwood plantations (IMPIRs). It is based on a review of existing literature. I focus on three issues: natural resource access and control, job creation, and the effects of creating forest reserves as a corollary of establishing industrial roundwood plantations. The cases reviewed here indicate that IMPIRs often bring about land ownership concentration, loss of customary rights of resource access, rural displacement, and socioeconomic decline in neighboring communities. Beneficiaries include large rural landowners who sell or lease their land to forestry companies, and people who are able to find jobs in the forestry sector. IMPIRs do not appear to provide enough quality .jobs to stimulate community development, and rarely benefit people who are already politically and economically marginalized. The paper concludes by suggesting ways in which plantation forestry can become more integrated with surrounding communities to increase local benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The performance standard procedure, a quantitative method for quantifying baseline greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions or removals, provides an alternative approach to the project-by-project methods currently being used in most GHG offset programs. By providing a top-down approach to assessing the three main technical offset accounting elements (setting the baseline, identifying leakage, and monitoring), this approach has the advantage of providing a broader analytical framework for addressing the issues and the ability to focus project developers in areas where such issues can be addressed more comprehensively. In addition, this top-down approach gives the performance standard developer the opportunity to consider the ecosystem services and human impacts in the analysis of where and what types of forestry projects should occur within a geographic area. Although further field study is required to understand the full implementation considerations involved, this procedure has the potential to help reduce some of the current reasons identified for the slow development of forest carbon offset projects to date. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study focuses on the possibility for income generation through carbon sequestration in land-use related protects under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto protocol. The carbon sequestration potential of agroforestry and forestry projects was studied in Nepal, Uganda and Tanzania. Carbon sequestration in biomass was 0.43 and 2.0 Mg C ha-1 year-1 in regeneration of natural forests in Tanzania and Nepal, respectively. Carbon sequestration rates in planted forests were 4.0 Mg C ha-1 year-1 for Eucalyptus woodlots in Uganda and 5.9 Mg C ha-1 year-1 for Pinus patula plantations in Tanzania. The economic profitability of these land-use systems was calculated using the Net Present Value (NPV). Based on a carbon price of US $10 per ton (Mg) and an annual interest rate of 10%, the NPV increased by between 4.9% and 6.5% for these systems when the carbon value was added to the timber value and value of non-wood products. This increase in value is probably too small to justify the cost in relation to project development, establishment of baseline, carbon monitoring costs, assessment of leakage and documentation of the effect on sustainable development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gura-Ferda forest is part of the moist evergreen Afromontane forest in southwestern Ethiopia. Despite the fact that large sections of this forest have become increasingly disturbed and fragmented since 1984, there is no scientific data on the dynamics of woody species diversity and forest carbon pools. As a result, the research was carried out to assess and compare the diversity of woody species and carbon stock along natural forest to farmland conversion gradient. Data were collected from natural forest, forest-farm interface, and farmland that were previously forest land. For the inventory of woody species, 90 nested plots (20 m*20 m for natural forest and forest-farm interface; 50 m*100 m for farmland) were established. To collect litter and soil samples, three 1 m*1 m subplots were established. Shannon-Wiener diversity index is significantly higher (p <.05) in natural forests (H' = 2.72 ± 0.31) than in forest-farm interface (H' = 1.42 ± 0.49) and farmland (H' = 1.08 ± 0.57). Natural forest total carbon stocks were approximately 1.55 and 2.64 times higher than forest-farm interface and farmland, respectively. This study revealed that there was a substantial reduction in species diversity and carbon stocks along the conversion gradient of natural forest to farmland. The Natural Resource Management sector of the district should use management approaches to reduce the pressure on natural forest, which has resulted in a substantial decrease in species richness and carbon stocks along the natural forest to farmland conversion gradient. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the interplay between different environmental governance discourses to assess to what extent each discourse finds ground for implementation. This study sheds light on the constituencies for broader transformational changes in global forest governance and, more emphatically, explores how different discourses built around forest and environmental governance employ different mechanisms (discursively and through policy instruments) within the operation of the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) debate. The focus of the analysis is the case of the jurisdictional REDD+ program in the state of Acre, in Brazil's Western Amazon. The underlying assumption in this research rests in the belief that REDD+ operation is linked to coupled social-political and economic contexts, which tend to follow social contingencies, and historical dependencies. Through documental analysis and the assessment of local stakeholders´ narratives, the research highlights the overall dominance of discourses built on to concepts of efficiency in contrast to a minor presence of discourses of social justice. In more broader terms, this study suggests that path dependencies place barriers which condition the extent to which transformations are rendered possible (or desirable) through program design and implementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of diameter at breast height (DBH) measurement in allometric equations for estimation of biomass (AGB) requires that measurements be taken precisely at 130cm from the ground level. However, obtaining this measurement is not always possible. This study aimed to i) investigate the relationship between the DBH and diameters measured at different heights below 130 cm on tree stems, ii) develop an equation for converting diameters measured below 130cm to DBH, and iii) evaluate the accuracy of using converted DBH values to estimate the AGB. We measured the diameters of 376 trees at various stem heights at intervals of 25 cm up to the DBH, in a protected area of the Atlantic Forest, Brazil. Three theoretical models were applied and tested, and the best equation was selected. The relationships between DBH and diameters at 50, 75, and 100 cm did not differ, which allowed the use of one general equation for converting these diameters to DBH. Measurements taken below 50 cm may lead to biased estimations; thus, we propose two additional equations for estimating DBH from these heights. The DBH converted from diameters measured at other heights can be accurately used to estimate the tree AGB and carbon stocks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Non-state actors (NSA) have become increasingly important in forest management and governance but with strikingly limited research on this subject. Here, we critically review the historical evolution and roles of major NSA in forest governance in selected tropical countries identifying the major challenges regarding sustainable and effective engagement of NSA and suggest pathways for better utilization of NSA. Historical evolution of forest governance revealed that the nature and role of NSA have substantially changed over time and NSA has expanded and diversified since the late 1970s with the introduction of different forms of community-based forest management (CBFM) models. Nevertheless, due to challenges such as predominant revenue orientation of forest governance that overshadows effective participation of NSA in governance, tenurial uncertainty, dependence on external funds and facilitation, ad hoc and project-based nature of operation, and sustainability of the relevant institutions, the outcomes of CBFM were limited. We conclude our synthesis calling for stronger policy, financial, and procedural support that ensures effective collaborations and partnerships with NSA that can result in positive outcomes for forest conservation and improvement of forest dependent local peoples' livelihoods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forest-based ecotourism in global perspective is managed by various stakeholders while promoting sustainable forest management. This review article attempts to identify forest-based ecotourism destinations in Sri Lanka, analyze the experiences of good governance, and evaluate local livelihoods and forest conservation outcomes. Within the diverse landscapes, national park and sanctuaries, rain forest trails, conservation forest trials, wetland sanctuaries, and indigenous operated ecotourism ventures are identified as the appropriate destinations. The experiences of good governance are discussed in terms of structure and integration, involvement and management, accountability practices, and culture of transparency. The enrichment of the local livelihoods is evaluated based on natural, physical, social, financial, and human capital development. The natural resource conservation activities prevention of deforestation and forest degradation, preservation of biological diversity, improvement of long-term production capacity of ecosystems, and wise management of natural resources are elaborated through local community outcomes, visitor outcomes, natural biophysical environment outcomes, wildlife outcomes, and organizational outcomes. Resource exploitation, gene piracy, wildlife crimes, and trade of protected flora and fauna have been examined as the bad side of the ecotourism. The policies suggested for sustainable development are conceptualization of ecotourism, community-based ecotourism, scientific and systematic process, and appropriate code of ethics and conduct. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forest co-management models between local communities and the state have gained considerable attention over the past two decades to reconcile ecological conservation with sustainable livelihoods of local communities. Grounded in an exploratory qualitative methodological focus, this study examines how forest co-management realities have fared vis-à-vis continued asymmetrical power relationships between communities and the state in Bangladesh's top-down forest governance system, specifically de facto forest governance structures in the case of Rema-Kalenga Wildlife Sanctuary and its larger landscape zone. Rema-Kalenga's regional forest actors have been struggling to develop a shared understanding regarding the goals and distribution of power in protected area co-management. The study points toward two developments: First, a low realized level of devolution as Rema-Kalenga's co-management institutions operate as mere unpaid "helpers" under the shadow of the state's centralized top-down governance in the Wildlife Sanctuary. Second, this study found signs of emerging dual governance in which local co-management institutions have created their own spaces of engagement and de facto influence in the larger Rema-Kalenga landscape zone, while significantly lacking active involvement in the core zone. Connections between these two spheres are sporadic, hampering ecosystem-approaches in Rema-Kalenga, and questioning the cohesiveness of co-management purposes in the studied area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Co-management of forest protected areas (PA) is considered as a viable option to improve the local-level forest governance. This study examined the state of local-level forest governance in Chunati wildlife sanctuary (CWS), a co-managed PA in south-eastern Bangladesh. Data on eight key principles of governance and forest conservation outcomes were collected by interviewing randomly selected non-state actors (n = 39) and state actors (n = 10) and four focus group discussions with the forest-dependent communities. We conducted a t-test to compare respondents' perceptions regarding key governance principles and conservation outcomes. Results revealed that co-management governance in CWS assisted to improve the quality of forests in terms of tree and wildlife diversity, while illicit felling and land encroachment had reduced. Respondents' overall perception on key governance principles showed a moderate-to-high score (mean 3.33 out of 5.00). Regarding forest conservation outcomes, the score was also moderate to high (mean 3.72 out of 5.00). Non-state actors showed fairly higher perception on overall key governance principles and conservation outcomes, while state actors (non-forestry officials) reported lower scores. Findings of this study would be useful to reshape the co-management policies that ensure good governance at local-level management of PA in Bangladesh and elsewhere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article provides a thorough analysis of the forms of corruption and the actors involved, as well as a critical review of national forest policy and economy in Bénin, West Africa. Empirical data shows that the current state of affairs is not unalterable. Observable differentiations in the local perception of corruption and illegal logging show that a latent majority of people disapproves and that they can be mobilized for sanction activities. The policy-oriented recommendations of this article offer ways to systematically reduce corruption and illegal logging: strengthening civil society (i.e., national NGOs) and promoting media coverage of these issues: introducing local sanctions in the framework of donor-assisted community forestry; adding anti-corruption conditions to foreign-sponsored forestry projects and forest policy reforms; enforcing decentralization in order to decrease the monopoly over forest resources currently enjoyed by state personnel: creating alternative income streams for local actors currently involved in illegal logging; and introducing land tenure reforms in order to increase local incentives for sustainable forest management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Diversifying land use of monoculture forestry plantations in land restitution projects in South Africa is critical in achieving a multipurpose production system. The objective of this study was to investigate potential land use options desired by land claimant beneficiaries. A random sampling technique was used to select 351 and 170 beneficiary households in Livubu and Tzaneen communities in Limpopo Province, respectively. Data were collected using household questionnaires and focus group discussions. Descriptive analysis, Chi-square test, Binary logistic regression and Friedman test were used to analyze the data. The study revealed that over 80% of the beneficiaries desired to diversify land use in both study communities and the potential land use options were found to be linked directly with socio-economic factors. There was a significant difference among the potential land-use options for both Livubu (p <.001) and Tzaneen (p <.001) communities. The predominant desired land-use option was agriculture and the least was animal grazing. Due to the poverty of the communities, it is necessary to identify and evaluate the best land-use options for implementation. Additionally, the government should build the capacity, skills and knowledge of beneficiaries on how to diversify land uses to accommodate their socio-economic needs, as articulated in the Agroforestry Strategy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the tools for reducing the release of carbon dioxide (CO2), the largest component of greenhouse gas emissions, is carbon sequestration--the accumulation of carbon in terrestrial forms. This paper explores options to mitigate global climate change through forestry, constraints to forestry's applicability, secondary environmental and social benefits, and techniques established to monitor and verify results. Twenty-five current carbon sequestration projects are listed totaling an estimated 193 million tons of carbon at an average price of approximately $2.18 per ton. However, modeling exercises demonstrate that even the theoretical upper limit of carbon sequestration through forestry is not enough to stabilize carbon emissions in the atmosphere. Non-forestry CO2 reduction measures must be taken as well. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Forest management affects carbon sequestration (mitigation) and resilience of forest ecosystems (adaptation) under climate change. Therefore, the efforts to integrate these two approaches have been made by the political arrangements to seek the synergy effects and deal with trade-offs. To study the state of the art linkages and forest policies to realize both adaptation and mitigation, we systematically review the literature highlighting the topic (136 publications) and outline two different approaches from Germany and Japan as countries with substantial forest resources and high influences on international forest policies and wood trade. We identify three linkages: (1) an ecosystem (based) approach assuming that a resilient ecosystem (adaptation), has high potential as a carbon sink (mitigation), (2) a sustainable forest management (SFM) aiming for enhancing forests' resilience and carbon sink potential simultaneously, and (3) a cross-sectoral approach generating synergies among multiple sectors of agriculture, forestry, urban design, and nature conservation. We find that a significant objective is still SFM for sustaining the forest area andwood production, where SFM examples in Germany and Japan exemplify contributions to carbon sinks and ongoing disaster risk management, respectively. Overall, the current differentiated objectives of SFM do not underpin the twofold approach and their synergy effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbon-based payments for ecosystem services solely consider afforestation and reforestation to assess sequestration. However, political ecology researchers demonstrate that tropical forests are complex socioecological systems where humans and institutions play an integral role in shaping landscapes. The current framing overlooks the net effect of traditional subsistence agriculturalists leaving behind low emission lifestyles, despite the likelihood of a significant increase in per capita emissions over time. In this case study, we use the history of forest use in the Pueblos Mancomunados—a commonwealth of indigenous communities in Oaxaca, Mexico—to explore sequestration through a socioecological systems lens. As negative emissions programs consider afforestation, we triangulated semistructured interviews, an unsupervised GIS classification of land cover, and a review of carbon dioxide emissions to consider out-migration, abandonment, and lifestyle change. We find that communities are struggling to maintain livelihoods as migration to urban centers and the United States continues. Meanwhile, spatial analysis revealed 800 ha of afforestation. Our analysis of out-migration scenarios and per capita emissions changes identified a tipping point in which no net-sequestration would occur from afforestation due to the changing lifestyles of the migrants and recommend improved local development to avoid this form of "leakage" when assessing global carbon stocks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examined the potential of dry north western woodlands of Ethiopia (Adi Goshu, Lemlem Terara, and Gemed) for carbon stocks. Allometry equations were used to determine the aboveground, belowground, and dead woods biomasses; litter and herbaceous biomasses were determined using direct harvesting method. The result showed the estimated mean carbon stocks of the aboveground, belowground, and the dead wood biomass for the Untapped Boswellia Papyrifera Woodland (UW) in Lemlem Terara site were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than that of the Adi Goshu site. In the Gemed site, the mean Herb Biomass Carbon (HBC) stock was 1.2 Mg ha−1, which is significantly highest (P < 0.05) than the other two study sites (Lemlem Terara, 0.42 Mg ha−1 and Adi Goshu, 0.45 Mg ha−1) for the Tapped Boswellia Papyrifera Woodland (TW). In UW, the mean soil carbon stock of the Lemlem Terara site (58.19 Mg ha−1) was significantly (P < 0.05) higher than that of Adi Goshu (33.61 Mg ha−1). In the case of the total carbon stocks in UW stratum, for the Adi Goshu site, the carbon stock was estimated to be about 55.26 Mg ha−1 while 96.74 Mg ha−1 for Lemlem Terara. Therefore, Carbon stock in different carbon pools (aboveground and belowground biomass, dead wood, litter, herbaceous biomass, and soil) has a potential to decrease the rate of enrichment of atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Determining the optimal rotation period was a crucial component of forest sustainable management strategies, especially under climate change. This paper had two objectives: (1) to determine the economic benefits and optimal rotation periods for timber production when coupled to carbon sequestration, as predicted by time series prediction models for Pinus tabulaeformis plantations in China; and (2) to evaluate how different carbon prices and interest rates affected optimal rotation periods using the forest land expectation value. The results suggested that time series prediction models were valuable for estimating timber volumes and carbon sequestrations based on surveys of different-aged stands. Importantly, since integrating carbon sequestrations into timber production benefits did not increase optimal rotation periods, this should promote P. tabulaeformis plantation management. In the sensitivity analysis, a higher carbon price increased the profitability of carbon sequestration and timber production, but not optimal rotation periods, though they were reduced under higher interest rates. In conclusion, incorporating both timber production and carbon sequestration benefits would sharply increase forest-based revenues, while realizing the carbon sequestration potential of P. tabulaeformis plantations. This approach was clearly useful to the development of reforestation/afforestation projects trying to mitigate climate change and also provided a theoretical basis for sustainable forest management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Participatory forest management (PFM) has been applied as an approach to create a framework for collaborative forest management between local communities and government forestry agencies. This study was designed to assess the contribution of PFM approach in improving forest status in the Southeastern Highlands of Ethiopia. Landsat satellite imageries of four years were used to evaluate the trends and rate of deforestation before and after PFM interventions. Socio-economic data were collected from sample household surveys, key participants, focus group discussions, and field observations. The results showed that there was high rate of deforestation before PFM intervention as forestland has decreased by 19% (2531 ha) between 1990 and 2000. However, after the PFM intervention (2000-2016), the forest cover has increased by 247 ha (2.2%). During this period, net 1016 ha of shrub-lands were converted into forestland owing to significant forest regeneration. In addition, most sampled households (94% and 96% from lower and upper altitudes, respectively) perceived that PFM had significantly contributed to improve forest regeneration in their locality. This study revealed that PFM can serve as a stepping stone for carbon financing mechanisms to reduce greenhouses emission and enhance carbon sinks via forest resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forests are seen as climate mitigation mechanisms by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. In addition, their importance in the sustainable development paradigm has been confirmed through their inclusion in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The SDGs are designed to provide a global orientation toward inclusive and sustainable development, yet their implementation presents new challenges for forestry practitioners. This paper uses an ethnographic case study to examine a forestry-based carbon-offsetting project in Mato Grosso, Brazil, and uses several SDGs to analyze the level of project success. The project was created to offset the emissions from the construction of the new football stadium built for the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Mato Grosso and, therefore, attracted international attention. The project provides analytical points for a discussion on how forestry-based carbon offsetting fits within the wider discussion on sustainable development and how the success of project outcomes can be influenced in several key areas. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The United Nations sustainable development goals (SDGs) provide an ambitious and comprehensive framework for addressing the development needs on a global, regional, and national scale. In order for the SDG targets to be obtainable, diverse stakeholders need the technical, institutional, and organizational capacity to implement the wide variety of initiatives covered under these goals. Inspired by a 2016 workshop, this article synthesizes capacity-building themes and strategies for the following approaches to sustainable development, specifically related to forestry, restoration, agriculture, and other forms of land management. Using three case studies from the authors’ experience, we present approaches to building local capacity for sustainable land management (SLM) in the tropics. These projects have taken different steps in order to build technical and leadership capacity as well as develop management or financial skills, and offer insight into various approaches that may be used in order to improve the effectiveness and long-term impact of SLM efforts. By presenting a range of tools and approaches to capacity building, the authors hope that this synthesis can serve as a valuable guide for the development of diverse capacity-building initiatives required to meet the SDGs. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper focuses on the calculation of the social discount rate to be used in the valuation of long-term investment projects and, more specifically, in the appraisal of public and environmental projects. The key idea is that the instantaneous discount rate of the discount function used for valuation must be equal to the hazard rate of the public good or the mortality rate of the population affected by the project. Previously, this approach has been applied by the authors to a system in which failure depends on a single component, but in this paper, we are going to consider the failure of several independent components which, in combination, give rise to a multivariate hazard rate. In our empirical application, the entire forested area of Spain will be the system, and the forests of the seventeen autonomous communities will be considered the components of the system; the forest fire will be the failure, measured by the number of hectares devastated by fire in each region. Finally, once the failure corresponding to all regions has been aggregated in a multivariate hazard rate, it will be implemented as a part of the social discount rate. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This study estimates the carbon stock of Banja Forest which is natural and dry Afromontane forest type in Banja District, northwest of Ethiopia. A systematic sampling method was used to identify each sampling point through the Global Positioning System. A total of 63 plots measuring 20 × 20 m were employed to collect tree species and soil data. Losses on ignition and the Walkley–Black method were used to estimate biomass and soil carbon stock, respectively. The carbon stock of trees was estimated using an allometric equation. The results revealed that the total carbon stock of the forest was 639.87 t/ha whereas trees store 406.47 t/ha, litter, herbs, and grasses (LHGs) 2.58 t/ha and soil 230.82 t/ha (up to 30 cm depth). The carbon pools’ carbon stock variation with altitude and slope gradients were not significant (p > 0.05) which was similar to other previous studies. The Banja Forest is a reservoir of high carbon and thus acts as a great sink of the atmospheric carbon. It can be concluded that the Forest plays a role in climate change mitigation. Hence, it should be integrated with reduced emission from deforestation and degradation (REDD+) and the clean development mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto Protocol to catch monetary benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Climate change and carbon mitigation through forest ecosystems are some of the important topics in global perspective. Tropical dry forests are one of the most widely distributed ecosystems in tropics, which remain neglected in research. The soil organic carbon (SOC) stock was quantified on a large scale (30 1-ha plots) in the dry deciduous forest of the Sathanur reserve forest of Eastern Ghats. The SOC stock ranged from 16.92 to 44.65 Mg/ha with a mean value of 28.26 ± 1.35 Mg/ha. SOC exhibited a negative trend with an increase in soil depth. A significant positive correlation was obtained between SOC stocks and vegetation characteristics viz. tree density, shrub basal area, and herb species richness, while a significant negative correlation was observed with bulk density. The variation in SOC stock among the plots obtained in the present study could be due to differences in tree abundance, herb species richness, shrub basal area, soil pH, soil bulk density, soil texture etc. The present study generates a large-scale baseline data of dry deciduous forest SOC stock, which would facilitate SOC stock assessment at the national level as well as to understand its contribution on a global scale. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Ecological ravages, environmental pollution, and the developmental problems of regional ecology, economy, and society are not geographical restrictions. The synergistic development of the ecology-economy-society system in forestry was quantitatively assessed by system theory and synergistic dynamic models, illustration of the metering principle and corresponding theory, assessing and quantizing synergistic development status of ecology-economy-society system, and the orderliness of the subsystem of the last decade. The orderliness of the ecology and ecological subsystems developed unstably with an increasing trend. The eco-environment construction and eco-conservation achievement of forestry in China are effective and need to be maintained. The industry structure should be improved to promote the growth of the forestry economy. The society subsystem development is increasing but is not at a high level, which indicates that the public demand to ecological service was not satisfied. The theoretical analysis and numerical examples show that the development of the forestry system has a good development state. The synergy changes of forestry system in the 0 to 0.951 range, which is in the intermediate degree of synergy during this period. It still needs much improvement on efficiency of synergy. The orderliness and the relationship among the subsystems of forestry should be improved in future. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Zagros forests are one of the vegetative regions which have been located in the west of Iran. The investigation of sustainable forest management in Zagros is one of the key issues which make us to consider the challenges concerned with the protection of forest resources and socioeconomic problems of local people. Demand for criteria evaluation and indicators for sustainable forest management from local to national level to conduct administrative affairs have been increased. The aim of the present study is to evaluate 7 criteria and 65 sustainable indicators which have been utilized in the Near East. Accordingly, a questionnaire, with its reliability confirmed by experts, was distributed among involved participants. The results indicated that the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the questionnaire was 0/729. Then, using DEMATEL model, the sustainability criteria were prioritized and the significant correlation among them determined. Likert scale was also utilized to rank all the indicators, and in terms of their relative weight they were compared with. The result indicated that the most significant criteria were legal, political, and institutional frameworks, and protective functions of forest criterion were the most influential factor. By analyzing the experts’ attitudes, reliance on natural regeneration indicator with the relative weight of 31/15% was the most significant criteria in the region. The existence of number of seed provenance with the relative weight of 9/17% was the least significant role. At the end, 27 verifiers, 25 threshold values, and the most significant indicators in this research were determined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forests are one of the most important ecosystems on earth that require careful management, conservation, and sustainable exploitation. As countries have their own guideline systems, each may learn and borrow from one another’s experience. One of such countries is Japan, which has elaborate forest policies, and rich in forest cover (67%) with its forest history dating many years back. On the other hand, Kenya, with a forest cover of just 7% and its policies demonstrating notable weaknesses, has a lot to learn from Japan. Therefore, we have attempted to do a comparative analysis of forest policies, technologies, and management practices between Kenya and Japan. Results indicate that Kenya’s forest policies do not place adequate emphasis on silvicultural practices and the establishment of forest plantations, and rarely focus on sustainable biomass utilization—factors that contributed significantly to forest growth and development in Japan. Additionally, policy legislation, revision, and implementation have not been given the deserved priority in Kenya. We conclude that Kenyan forest policy would benefit from both revision and thorough implementation. We also discuss the role of indirect factors such as economic growth and availability of nonwood-based energy sources in the future of Kenya’s forests. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This article examines the characteristics of households that were allocated paid forest protection contracts in Tam Dao National Park situated in northern Vietnam. Its research indicates that the national park management board systematically favored households with weaker community ties in their contract allocations. Furthermore, the article argues that the national park management board took a defensive stance against buffer zone communes resisting park policy and that they also attempted to manage forest conservation by centralizing the allocation and management of forest protection contracts. These circumstances led to an inequitable distribution of rights and continued land use inside the park, as contract holders were powerless to enforce park regulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Community-based forest management, such as Community Forest Enterprises (CFEs), has the potential to generate positive socioenvironmental and economic outcomes. We performed a detailed survey of financial and production parameters for 30 of the approximately 992 CFEs in Mexico in order to estimate costs, income, profits, and sustainability of harvest levels for forest management, harvest, and sawmilling. Fourteen of the 30 CFEs harvested more timber than they grew in 2011, suggesting issues with sustainability, but only two of these had harvest far above annual growth, and five of those were only a fraction more than annual growth. All of the 30 CFEs except one made profits in forest management and timber growing. For timber harvesting, 22 of 30 CFEs made profits, but the losses were small for the other CFEs. For the 23 CFEs with sawmills, 18 made profits and five had losses; the greatest returns for the CFEs accrued to those with sawmills for lumber production. On average, the CFEs surveyed had high costs of production relative to other countries, but the CFEs were still profitable in national lumber markets. If Mexico were to begin importing large amounts of lumber from lower cost countries, this could pose a threat to CFE profitability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the collective forestry property system in China has developed in recent years, the difficulty faced by forestry households (the main managers of Chinese forests) in securing loans has received extensive attention. To address this problem, we should follow the bottom-up principle and undertake effective measures based on a clear understanding of forestry financing. Based on the results of a questionnaire, this article investigates and analyzes the credit demand in forestry households, lending channels, scaling, time limits, loan usage, and cost structures. Studies have shown that funding deficits contribute to the intense demand for loans. The salient characteristics of foresters’ credit demand indicate that such demand is typically large-scale and of long duration—particularly when compared with the credit demand of common farmers. Loans to foresters are used for production purposes and mainly come from formal financing. The structural dislocation of current forestry loan products has resulted in a demand for forestry farming credit that is difficult to satisfy. Therefore, improving the quality of credit services and optimizing loan product structures would help foresters and the Chinese forestry industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Medicinal plants are widely used in India for various livelihood and health benefits. However, there is a lack of awareness and research on their carbon sequestration and economical potential, which constrains their use in various ongoing carbon forestry schemes precluding farmers from potential carbon revenue opportunities. The present study seeks to fill this knowledge gap by assessing the carbon sequestration and economic potential of three extensively used medicinal tree species ofEmblica officinalis(Amla),Terminalia belerica(Bahera), andTerminalia chebula(Harar) in the state of Sikkim with the help of the project-based comprehensive mitigation assessment process (PROCOMAP) model. The findings of this research suggest that the selected species of Amla, Bahera, and Harar have significant carbon sequestration rates of 1, 2.64, and 1.42 tC ha−1yr−1, which could generate Indian National Rupees (INR) 844, 1,198, and 2,228 ha−1yr−1, respectively from carbon revenues in a $5/tCO2scenario through various ongoing carbon forestry schemes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of forest wastes for the production of bioenergy and liquid biofuels has the potential to offset the use of fossil energy sources. Some studies suggest biofuel and bioenergy produced from the removal of forest waste—products considered to be uneconomical to harvest—generates significant well-to-tank greenhouse gas (GHG) emission savings by displacing energy produced from fossil resources. In parallel, an increase in the frequency and intensity of wildfire both empirically observed and predicted by climate change models has highlighted the need to actively manage forests to increase the resilience of forests to wildfire. Integrated analysis that takes into account the dynamic interactions between carbon (C) pools resulting from forest management practices; forest fire behavior; and the fate of forest biomass in debris, forest products, and energy production will provide a consistent framework for policy planning that maximize the overall benefits of GHG policy. This integrated approach will have a better chance of balancing the trade-offs and maximizing synergies between C management and sustainability goals. This article outlines a life cycle accounting framework for evaluating the GHG benefits of utilizing forest biomass for bioenergy production under various forest management strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This article investigates options for reforestation in degraded forests in Central Vietnam within the context of sustainable forestry and presents a forest management plan for the forests around the community of Phong My. In the past, the area was damaged during the war between Vietnam and the United States and after that by overcutting. Forests have gradually been degraded and now they are replaced by plantations of fast-growing Acacia (Acacia mangium). After final harvests, the stand remnants are burnt and the burnt area is again regenerated via artificial regeneration of Acacia. Here, we propose several mixtures in which Acacia stands can be augmented with other tree species. A proposed system of afforestation and subsequent management is given here with the goal of encouraging mixed species, multiple cohort stands, and disincentivizing the method of slash-and-burn. The proposed afforestation patterns were also used to calculate the future number of seedlings required to enable the enlargement of quality forests at the expense of degraded ones. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In order for carbon credits awarded for reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation of forests (REDD) to be effective, they need to be competitive with alternative land uses. In the case of Southeast Asia, oil palm cultivation is one of the most lucrative possible land uses. Existing mechanisms for awarding certified emission reductions (CERs) might not be adequately flexible to changing commodity prices or to meet the needs of landowners who heavily discount future returns from their land. Real options could be a useful valuation tool for negotiating an annual contract that guarantees a minimum payment or “strike price” to the landowner depending on the potential returns from cultivation of their land. The real option based algorithm computes a competitive payment dependent on the relevant commodity prices contributing to land cover change. This article proposes a method whereby the risk is shared between the seller and buyer, providing a per hectare payment that favors the conservation of forests containing higher biomass per hectare. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The cultivation of different plants around homesteads for subsistence and cash income has been a long tradition in Bangladesh. This study explores stand structure, composition, and biodiversity within the homestead agroforests of the drought-prone, northwestern region of Bangladesh. In 96 randomly selected homesteads within 3 study villages, we identified 56 tree species. Among those, Mangifera indica (mango) was the most popular fruit bearing species. Four non-parametric diversity indices were derived to provide a characterization of biodiversity. The Sørenson similarity index was also used to compare the similarity of species among different landholding size classes. The overall Shannon-Wiener biodiversity index and Pielou's evenness index values were 1.82 and 0.45, respectively. This study confirms that the farmers had strong preference for fruit species over timber yielding ones, and because of better growth performance natives were preferred over exotics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Edo State teak plantations witnessed unregulated exploitation between 1986 and 2001, which impacted the people, and the environment. This study was undertaken to determine the primary and secondary causes of unregulated exploitation. Ten teak plantations were randomly selected in Edo State with four 25-m × 25-m plots laid out in each plantation, to obtain information on the rates of exploitation based on the assessment of relic trees. Socioeconomic data were obtained through the use of 3 sets of questionnaires developed and administered to 958 respondents comprising 213 forestry staff, 437 farmers, and 308 saw millers/timber contractors in 10 selected communities out of the 28 settlements adjoining these plantations. The results revealed there was significant difference (p < .05) between primary and secondary causes. Poor forest policy implementation had a significant (p < .05) positive effect on teak exploitation. Idale had a dominant 11.16 m3 ha-1 yr-1 mean annual increment (MAI) which accounted for 17.61%, while the least value was recorded at Udo-Nikrowa. It is imperative that commensurate efforts at reforestation and the use of lesser known timber species need to be encouraged. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social forestry, involving local people in a benefit-sharing mechanism, has been introduced to Bangladesh as a remedy to stop rampant deforestation. To date, few studies designed to evaluate the performance of the social forestry program in Bangladesh have been conducted. The purpose of this study was to measure and compare the profitability of strip plantations from the viewpoint of both government and participants. Prior to social forestry, there were no government forests in the study areas located in the Bogra and Jessore Forest Divisions in Bangladesh. Since program implementation, strip plantations totaling 5,848.3 km2 have been grown in these areas. Although, in principle, these social forestry plantations are meant to be harvested after 10 years; after associated legal and administrative dilemmas, they have come to be harvested on a regular basis since 2000. Strip plantations in the study sites were profitable to participants, generating an increase in annual income. Taking net present value (NPV) and benefit cost ratio (BCR) into account, investment in this type of plantation is more profitable in Jessore than in Bogra. The NPV km-1 of the strip plantation was US$2,883 and US$1,331 in Jessore and Bogra, respectively, while the corresponding BCR values were 1.89 and 1.31. The Bogra respondents earned a greater financial return from the strip plantations than did those of Jessore, receiving on average, US$711 compared to US$439 in Jessore. The average return year-1 participant-1 from the strip plantation was US$44.5 (Bogra) and US$55 (Jessore), but 13 years were required for the total return to be realized. This added income is a significant contribution to local monetary resources and improves the socioeconomic conditions of the poor. The application of social forestry practices to strip plantations in Bangladesh could be a key factor in significantly reducing poverty and could also stem the rising tide of forest resource losses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Land-use decisions and practices surrounding protected areas have proven to be contentious. Particularly in developing countries, buffer zones associated with protected areas must accommodate both conservation and development objectives, including agricultural interests. However, incorporating stakeholder group preferences in land-use decisions can be challenging and developing informed management approaches through a transparent process can be difficult. To assist the detailing of a responsive buffer zone management plan, this research used a process-oriented approach to elucidate the needs and priorities of stakeholders for the Nyungwe National Park (NNP) buffer zone in Rwanda. This article presents an application of the SWOT-AHP methodology (a strength, weakness, opportunity, and threat analysis hybridized with the analytic hierarchy process) as a particular way of engaging communities and interested groups in buffer zone management planning. This methodology engaged farmers, local governments, national agencies, non-governmental organizations, and other interested groups in a collaborative priority-setting activity. This approach may be useful to agroforestry and agricultural land-use managers when identifying differences in needs and perceptions between groups is important in order to negotiate and implement trade-offs in planning decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the current state of community forestry in Laos. The rationale for community forestry in the Lao context is presented, followed by a discussion of the development of the Lao version of community forestry, called participatory sustainable forest management (PSFM). The history of a project supported by an international non-government organization that attempted to implement PSFM and that was subsequently discontinued by the Lao government is then presented, followed by an analysis of the reasons for government opposition to the project. Examples of more successful community forestry systems in two countries—Nepal and Mexico—are contrasted with Laos's state-centered PSFM model. Lessons from these countries suggest that fundamental institutional changes are necessary for community forestry to take hold in Laos. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is hotly debated today whether the reduction of tropical deforestation should be supported by a mechanism within the Convention for Climate Change. This mechanism, known as “avoided deforestation,” would benefit developing countries that voluntarily reduce their deforestation rates, thereby generating at least two positive impacts: (a) an increase in the financial resources available to curb tropical deforestation, with expected positive side effects on biodiversity conservation, the environmental services provided by these forests, and sustainable development as a whole; and (b) a greater effectiveness of the global fight against climate change, because tropical deforestation contributes extensively to world carbon emissions. Several proposals were designed for such a mechanism, yet their implementation poses significant methodological problems: first, sophisticated tools available to measure the reduction of emissions might be ineffective when combined with baselines on a national level; secondly, baselines calculated ex ante lack accuracy because of insufficient knowledge concerning the direct and underlying causes of deforestation; thirdly, baselines calculated ex post lack legitimacy because they only refer to past trends; and fourthly, it is challenging to relate a reduction in deforestation rates to public policy options in the host country.Drawing lessons from our analysis of the methodological problems for the implementation of the mechanism, we recommend not promoting any mechanism based on financial rewards for an assumed voluntary reduction of national tropical deforestation rates. Two reasons justify our perspective: not only would the mechanism probably generate fake reductions (“hot air”), but undesirable side effects—detailed in this paper—would also appear. Instead, we encourage industrialized countries to better use already existing multi- and bilateral instruments, which focus on the correction of governance deficiencies in countries home to tropical forests. It is also necessary to focus on the suppression of “perverse incentives” from public policies in tropical countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article reviews 15 payment for watershed services (PWS) programs in Asia, most of which are in early stages of implementation. Important constraints against PWS in Asia include high population density that escalates transaction costs of contracting potential service suppliers, and state control over most forestlands. China has two nationwide programs that encourage afforestation to arrest soil erosion. Indonesia has several local PWS schemes to conserve catchments upstream of dams and hydroelectric plants. Vietnam, Nepal, and the Philippines have similar initiatives, funded by international donors or local hydroelectric companies. India presents two cases where village communities came up with innovative social arrangements to secure watershed services. However, in most cases conditionality is weakly enforced, and participation may be mandatory. Government is the major buyer of watershed services, while private or quasi-private companies are involved in a few watersheds in Indonesia, the Philippines, and Nepal. Evidence of PWS on poverty alleviation is tenuous in most cases. China's Sloping Land Conversion Program has helped the poor increase their asset base while landless farmers in Indonesia have received conditional land tenure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the major global trends linked to the process of globalization is the expansion of agro-industry into the humid tropics. Although agro-industry is an important source of income for Brazil, it is also leading to the displacement of local populations and extensive clearing of native vegetation. In this context, we focus on a second trend resulting from globalization in which financial institutions have demonstrated increasing concern with environmental and social responsibility, notably through the inclusion of environmental and social conditions in loans to the agricultural sector. In this article, we provide an assessment of the potential for this type of economic instrument to help reduce the negative impacts of agro-industrial expansion, and how the different actors who are shaping this debate (non-governmental organizations, industries, the finance sector, government) can best help to realize this potential. We evaluate this broader question through the lens of two International Finance Corporation loans to Brazil's Grupo Maggi, the world's largest independently-held soybean exporter. We identify four areas in which private sector self-regulation can improve to realize environmental and social performance goals: (a) Financial institutions and firms can increase the clarity, quality, timeliness, and regularity of monitoring and reporting; (b) Civil society can develop a more sophisticated approach to distinguishing between companies and initiatives that essentially maintain the status quo and those that are trying to improve; (c) Civil society can help to develop simple, standard measures of environmental and social performance of agricultural lands for use by financial institutions and firms in establishing environmental and social management systems; and (d) Governments can develop strong regulations that capitalize on voluntary regulation mechanisms' flexibility and efficiency, as well as developing incentive systems for producers and firms that demonstrate high social and environmental performance in their operations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Certification, or eco-labeling, is potentially a useful tool to stimulate the growth of ecosystem service markets. Certification guide- lines, such as the Forest Stewardship Council's Principles and Criteria, offer landowners clearly defined approaches to biodiversity-friendly forest management while also emphasizing the profitability of sustain- able forestry operations. In some cases for forest products, market access now requires products to carry certification labels. However, Panama's domestic demand for certified forest products is negligible. The combination of a lack of international market awareness of many of Panama's native tree species, a young plantation forestry industry, and virtually non-existent industrial wood processing capacity have kept Panama's forest products exports, including certified wood products, to a mini- mum. In summary, on both the supply and demand sides of the equation, a host of socio-cultural, institutional, and economic obstacles prevent landowners from pursuing certification programs for forest management and production of non-timber forest products. As a result, national and international markets for certified Panamanian forest products remain virtually unexplored business opportunities. To develop markets for certified forest products from Panama, a host of policy alternatives might be considered, including informational campaigns and extension programs for local landowners, incentive packages to defray initial costs of certification, and investments in international marketing campaigns coupled with investments in developing local manufacturing capacity and infrastructure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The market for carbon sequestration services is developing rapidly. The objective of this paper is to analyze existing market demand for carbon credits and review existing institutions supporting demand generation. Existing carbon demand is driven primarily by regulated, and to a lesser extent, non-regulated or voluntary markets. While regulated carbon markets are potentially large and driven by the Kyoto Protocol, the challenge for a forestry-based carbon project in Panama is its ability to meet CDM regulated constraints. The challenge in non-regulated carbon markets is identifying potential consumers in an extremely fragmented market. While there is significant demand for carbon credits, meeting demand for carbon credits in the regulated and voluntary markets from forestry-based carbon sequestration projects will remain a challenge. Landowners may have options to pursue these markets; however, reforestation and afforestation project profitability and viability will he dependent on how carbon markets evolve. Current political and institutional infrastructures in Panama do not concentrate on building international demand for forestry-based carbon credits. As a result, there may be immediate opportunities for Panama to develop institutions and policies for growing carbon market demand, while supporting carbon credit supply. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A global market for carbon sequestration services has emerged in recent years, driven both by regulations under the Kyoto Protocol and by private sector self-interests. However, the development of this market has been stymied by several factors, chief among them a tentative and dubious supply side. Land managers have been wary to enter the carbon market for three main reasons: high transaction and management costs, imperfect information, and a lack of institutional support. These factors have dissuaded potential suppliers from entering the market, even in the face of growing demand from governments and corporations looking to buy carbon sequestration services. As a nation with outstanding potential to capitalize on the global demand for carbon Sequestration services, the Republic of Panama has much to gain from the maturation of a carbon market. In order to facilitate the growth of this market and stimulate the supply of carbon offset projects in Panama, policy mechanisms could be used by international, national, and local institutions to stimulate supply by providing financial, informational, and technical support to land managers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This analysis reviews the state of the knowledge regarding carbon sequestration in terrestrial biomass with specific focus on tropical systems in Central America and Panama. Natural forests, exotic plantations, native species plantations, and agroforestry systems are considered in light of their carbon sequestration potential, their initiation and maintenance costs, and their ability to access the emerging regulated and informal carbon markets. All four of these systems show great potential to take up or store carbon and thus contribute to atmospheric reductions of CO2. Research, investment, and institutional support are required to assist in the clear definition and expansion of carbon supply possibilities for market transactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Providing a mechanism for financial transfers from the North to the South, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) aims to fund afforestation projects resulting in both reduced atmospheric carbon dioxide and sustainable development. One attractive feature of the CDM is that unlike other emerging carbon trading schemes it offers a means to promote sustainable development, which in a poor country must include providing poor people with income-earning opportunities. In practice however, the CDM projects may fail to address four issues key to this possibility: ownership, price, transaction costs, and use rights. The fail- ure to address these issues ultimately could lead the CDM to benefit elite landowners at the expense of the poor. However, recognition of this oversight provides opportunities to work with poor communities world-wide to facilitate the collective action required to make the CDM work for them. Such a focus holds the key to ensuring that the CDM achieves the twin objectives of environmental conservation and sustainable development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents the results from the analysis of the geographic distribution of forest remnants in relation to armed conflicts in Colombia. Estimation of the proportion of forests in municipalities where guerilla and paramilitary activities may impact resource use by individuals; Assessment of the effects of armed conflict on deforestation and forest conservation in several municipalities in Colombia; Information on the violence syndrome.